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SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 




ELLEN H. RICHARDS 

(1842-1911) 

For forty years leader in the Home Economics Movement 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

A TEXTBOOK 

OF THE 

HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



BY 
HELEN KTNNE 

PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION 
AND 

ANNA M. COOLEY, B.S. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



'Ntta g0rk 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1920 

All rights reserved 




fftoMimi 



COPTRIGHT, 1913, 

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



• • • • • 

' • • * • Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1913^ 



J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co, 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 






TBANSPHB 
B, O. PXTBLIC LIBIUB7 
'. 10,1040 



367113 



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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA FROFKKTY 

PREFACE 

This book and the companion volume, Foods and Household 
Management by the same authors, are intended for the girl 
pursuing any type of high school or normal school course, 
as well as for the home maker. They cover the course in 
household arts for the general high school. 

The authors feel that household arts in high schools should 
not be confined to problems in cooking and sewing. They are 
only a part of the study of home making. The questions of 
home organization, management, care, repair, homo sahitatibn, 
and decoratic n, are also important, and should, find a -place in 
the household arts course of study in every high school. 

The question of what to include in a general textbook has 
been a difficult one for the authors to answer because of the 
scope of the field of household arts. It has been planned so 
as to give the most helpful suggestions in relation to each, 
subject. 

This book deals with the home, its ideals in organization, 
its sanitation, decoration, and furnishing ; also with the ques- 
tions of textiles, sewing, and dressmaking. Foods and House- 
hold Management treats of the study of foods, their manufacture, 
composition, preparation, and serving, and the home problems 
of management, accounts, buying, housewifery, care and repair 
of household furnishings. 

The authors wish to express thanks to those who have read 
and criticized the manuscript : Professor Warner, of Teachers 
College, for the chapters on home decoration and domestic 
architecture ; Miss Laura I. Baldt and Miss Helen Donovan, 
of Teachers College, for the parts on sewing, garment making, 

.. • V 



Vi PREFACE 

and dressmaking; Professor Fales, of Teachers College, and 
Miss Grace Nagle, for criticism of the chapter on history of 
costume ; Mrs. William Buchner, for the chapter on the im- 
portance of dress ; Mrs. Ellen Beers McGowan, of Teachers 
College, and Miss Charlotte Waite, of Kalamazoo Vocational 
School, Michigan, for reading parts in relation to textiles ; 
Professor Vulte, of Teachers College, for criticism of the chap- 
ter on house sanitation ; Mrs. Evelyn Tobey, for the chapter 
on millinery ; the students of the costume design class at 
Teachers College, for the sketches in the chapters on dress. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

This book is arranged topically. It is not, however, abso 
lutely necessary to present the subjects in the order outlined. 
The class discussions and exercises in relation to home ideals, 
house sanitation, and decoration may be followed in sequence, 
while the study in textiles, sewing, and dressmaking may run 
parallel if desired. Most teachers prefer to outline their 
courses in Household Arts for the year in some such way, 
adapting the subjects to the needs of the girls, and arranging 
the topics so that there is sequence in the work presented dur- 
ing the four years of the high school course. Such teachers 
should be familiar with all the subjects offered in both volumes 
of this series, Shelter and Clothing and Foods and Household 
Management, and should select for daily study those parts that 
bear on the work of the school course for each year and each 
division of the year. Suggestions for courses of study in rela- 
tion to textiles, sewing, dressmaking, and management can be 
found in " Domestic Art in Woman's Education," by Anna M. 
Cooley, published by Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, which 
is a book for teachers, dealing with the methods of teaching 
these subjects. 

Teachers may assign exercises for home work according to 
the amount of time each consumes. Many of them are arranged 
to test the initiative of the pupil. They are also intended to 
indicate to the teacher possible methods of accomplishing some 
of the work. Exhibits, excursions, written exercises, use of 

vii 



Viii SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

stereoscope, stereopticon lectures by class, charts of textile and 
house-furnishing subjects, sketches, use of bulletin board, are 
all helpful and interesting to girls. 

This volume presupposes a knowledge of sewing and other 
phases of the work of the average elementary school and does 
not present the elementary stitches and processes. Of the 
problems suggested for practice, choice may be made, or others 
substituted. It is wise early in the high school course to 
review the hand-sewing processes rather than to devote the 
entire time to machine work. 

The drafting introduced is intended to give freedom and not 
to bind the girl to a set of letters committed to memory. The 
main aim in introducing it at all for the average high school 
girl is to enable her to change commercial patterns and to use 
them more freely. 

In addition to the books on methods of teaching the house- 
hold arts suggested above, the following bibliography may be 
of assistance to teachers in preparing subject matter: — 

The Art of Right Living — Ellen H. Richards. 

The House — Isabel Bevier. 

House Sanitation — Marion Talbot. 

A Color Notation — A. H. Munsell. 

The Theory and Practice of Teaching Art — A. W. Dow. (New 
edition.) 

The School Arts Book. Published by the School Arts Pub- 
lishing Company, Boston, Mass. 

The Household Arts Review. Published three times a year by 
the Household Arts Club, of Teachers College. 

Homes and Their Decoration — Lillie H. French. 

Art and Economy in Home Decoration — Mabel Priestman. 

Chats on Old Furniture — Arthur Hayden. 

The Oriental Rug Book — Ripley. 

A Sewing Course — Mary Schenck Woolman. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS ix 

Textiles and Clothing — K. Watson. 

Embroidery Up to Date. — Butterick Publishing Company. 

Lace, Its Origin and History — Goldenberg. 

Textiles — Dooley. 

Household Textiles — Charlotte M. Gibbs. 

A Study of Textiles — Woolman and McGowan. 

Textile Fibers — Matthews. 

Spinning Woolen and Worsted — W. S. McLaren. 

The Story of the Cotton Plant — F. Wilkinson. 

The Structure of the Wool Fiber — F. H. Bowman. 

Ten Centuries of Toilette — A. Robida. 

History of Fashion in France — A. Challamel. 

Millinery. Current Magazines. McCall's, beginning in Jan- 
uary, 1913. 

Dressmaking. Current Magazines. Series L'Art de la Mode. 
January, 1913. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
THE HOME 

CHAPTER I 
The Home 

PAGE 

The Aims of a Home — Ideals in Establishing — Education in the 
Home — The Mistress of the Home — Entertainment in the 
Home 1 

CHAPTER II 

The House 

The House and its Surroundings — Apartments and Single Houses 

— Domestic Architecture — Exposure of the House ... 15 

CHAPTER III 

House Plans and Construction 

Arrangement of Rooms — The Cellar and Foundation — The Upper 

Structure 30 



CHAPTER IV 

Heating, Ventilating, and Lighting 

Stoves — Furnaces — Steam and Hot Water Apparatus — Ventilat- 
ing Apparatus — Candles — Lamps — Gas and Electric Lighting 37 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 
Water Supply and Disposal of Waste 

PAGE 

Sources of Water — Contamination of Water — Filtration — Disposal 

of Refuse — Drainage and Plumbing 45 

CHAPTER VI 

Decoration or the Home 

Guiding Principles in Home Decoration and Furnishing — The Walls 

and their Covering — Floors and Floor Coverings — Woodwork . 55 

CHAPTER VII 

Furnishing or the Home 

Furniture — Draperies — Curtains — Pictures and Bric-a-brac — The 
Furnishing of Bedroom, Bathroom, Dining Room, Halls, and 
Kitchen 73 

PART II 
TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 

TEXTILE MATERIALS AND HOW THEY ARE MADE 

CHAPTER VIII 

Cotton 

Reason for Study of Textiles — Cotton Varieties — Growth — Cul- 
ture in the United States — Ginning — Baling — By-products — 
Manufacture of Thread and Cloth — Common Cotton Materials 
Every Girl should Know — Cotton Industry in the United States 97 

CHAPTER IX 

Flax 

Its Growth — Varieties — Culture — By-products — Manufacture of 
Yarn and Cloth — Common Linen Materials — Uses of Linen 
Yarn — Linen Industry in the United States — Other Vegetable 
Fibers 131 



CONTENTS xiii 

CHAPTER X 
Wool 

PA.GE 

Varieties — Growth — Culture — Woolens — Worsteds — Remanu- 
factured Wools — Manufacture and Furnishings of Wool Fabrics 

— Uses of Woolen Yarn — Common Woolen and Worsted Mate- 
rials — Wool Industry in the United States 148 

CHAPTER XI 
Silk 

Its Culture — Growth — Varieties — Manufacture of Thread — Cloth 

— Silk Dyeing and Finishing — Other Uses — Other Silk Fibers 

— Silk Industry in the United States — Common Silk Materials 171 

CHAPTER XII 

Comparison of Wool, Cotton, Silk, and Flax 

Microscopical and Chemical Differences — Varying Characteristics 
and Properties — Methods of Adulteration of our Common Mate- 
rials and Ways of testing Them — Chemical Tests for Identifica- 
tion of Fibers — Other Tests for Fibers 188 



SEWIJVG AND GARMENT MAKING 

CHAPTER XIII 

Undergarments 

Hand vs. Machine Work — Ethics of Purchase of Underwear — 
Sewing Machines and their Use — Materials for Underwear — 
Decoration of Underwear 200 

CHAPTER XIV 

Patterns 

Altering — Interpreting — Testing — Drafting — Commercial Pat- 
terns and their Use ......... 217 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XV 
Drafting 



PAGE 



Drafts for Kiraono Night Dress, Drawers, Shirt Waist, Corset Cover, 
Chemise, Night Dress developed from Shirt Waist Draft — Foun- 
dation Skirt Draft for Division into Four, Five, Six, or Other 
Gored Divisions 220 

CHAPTER XVI 

Cutting and Making Garments 

Undergarments and Other Garments — Suggested Problems in Sew- 
ing ............ 244 

CHAPTER XVII 

Embroidery 

Suggestions for Study of its History — A Few Useful Stitches and 
how to make Them — Some Suggestions for applying the Stitches 
in Combinations .......... 257 

DRESS 

CHAPTER XVIII 

History of Costume 

Egyptian Costume — Greek — Roman — French Costume — Early 
Middle Ages — Fourteenth Century — Sixteenth Century — The 
Renaissance — Eighteenth Century Costume — Period of French 
Revolution — Restoration Period, 1815-30 — Modern Needs . 274 

CHAPTER XIX 

Costume Design 

The Importance of Artistic Dress — Its Requirements — Principles 
of Design — Unity — Lines, Silhouette and in Design — Dark 
and Light "Value" — Value in Color — Color Harmony and 
Emphasis — Lines and Colors for Different Figures — Fashion — 
Simplicity in Dress — Appropriateness — Use of Jewelry . . 288 



CONTENTS XV 

CHAPTER XX 
The Hygiene of Clothing 

PAGE 

Its Importance in Relation to Health — Uses of Clothing — Selec- 
tion of Shoes in Relation to Health — Corsets — Hats and Hair 

— Underwear 303 

CHAPTER XXI 
The Economics of Dress 

Economics of Selection of Materials — Allowance and Dress Budget 

— Budgets for Wardrobe costing |65 — One averaging $125 per 
Year 311 

CHAPTER XXII 

Cake and Repair of Clothing 

A Few Suggestions for Daily Use — Care between Seasons — Care of 
Colored Clothes before Laundering — Renovating and Cleaning 

— Dyeing — Renovating Laces, Silks, Velvets, Hat Materials — 
Removal of Common Spots — Mending and Remodeling . . 319 

CHAPTER XXIII 

The Construction of Dresses 

The Dresses a High School Girl should be able to Make — Construc- 
tion of Middy Blouse, Lingerie Waist, Tailored Skirt, Gymna- 
sium Suit, Tailored Shirt Waist, Norfolk Jacket Waist, and 
Simple One-piece Dresses 332 

CHAPTER XXIV 
Millinery 

Selection of Hats — The Making and Covering of a Buckram Frame 

— Lining a Hat — Making of Wire Frame — Straw Sewing — 
Bow Making — Suggestions for Trimming 348 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

PART I 

CHAPTER I 
THE HOME 

Upon the privacy and sanctity of the home rests the 
strength of American democracy. The Enghsh and German 
nations are noted for the deep-rooted attachment of their 
people to the home and for their skill as home makers. 
They have fought through centuries for the preservation of 
their home ideals, and have realized the nobility of the profes- 
sion of home making. The words ''house" and ''home" 
are often confused. The home expresses the family life which 
is lived within the house. The house is the place where the 
home maker surrounds herself with artistic and harmonious 
furnishings and where she tries to work out the ideals and 
standards of living that will create the real home atmosphere 
and bring about the development of all of the members of 
the family. The material things of the home express the 
real spirit of the family and exert an untold influence on its 
moral and intellectual life. The home should stand for rest, 
for peace, for comfort, health, and inspiration, for the true 
spiritual development of each member of the family. There 
should be unity, with a chance for each individual to express 
himself ; a democracy in the best sense of the term. 

A house may have had every thought and care expended 
upon its furnishing and equipment, every device for conven- 
ience and comfort, and yet fail to be a home. The home 

B 1 



2 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

atmosphere is created by the ideals of the family or of her 
who is to lead in its administration and management. It is 
her artistic sensibility that brings about this atmosphere, a 
something that cannot be bought, but that is the result of 
thought and training. Each real home should be an insti- 
tution of society so managed that the best and most efficient 
citizens may be given to the community. Every girl, then, in 
preparation for home building should consider carefully this 
aim. The home is the place where the members of the family 
retire apart from the world and where children receive train- 
ing that will help them to meet the problems of life outside 
the home. The household machinery should be so arranged 
that there is time left for the higher life of the home and for 
child training, as the main aim is the production of happy, 
healthy, useful human beings. The home makers of the 
ideal home are not so worried and overtaxed that there is little 
time left for the family and the real joys of family life. The 
true aim cannot be achieved if more thought is given to the 
care of the house than to the physical, spiritual, and mental 
development of the children — character building is the aim 
of home making. In the ideal home the father unites with 
the mother in the aims to be attained. The home should 
satisfy the many-sided needs of all the members of the family, 
and it should be a place of refuge which each delights to 
seek, where the troubles and worries of life are shared and 
the burdens carried together. It is the character and ideals 
of those within the home that will make this ideal a possible 
achievement, not the mere formal walls and living together 
of a group of people. 

Each home has an individuality that is strongly its own, 
and expresses to the world the ideals and standards of life 
of those within. As long as there are men and women and 
life lasts, there will be homes. The girl should so prepare 



THE HOME 3 

herself for home administration with a view to improving 
present conditions of home hfe that her home will minister 
to all that is good and beautiful and best in the personal 
health and happiness of the lives of her family and not- to 
dissatisfaction, unrest, overelaborateness, expensive living, 
discord, and unhappiness. • The home, when it is rightly 
developed with all things in proportion, works entirely 
for good and is uplifting. The family should not be a dis- 
organized group with no regard for privacy, individual rights, 
or the good of others. If this condition exists, the home 
is based on wrong ideals. No community is better than 
the average home in its midst, and no institution outside of 
the home — church, state, or school — can compensate for 
the neglect of home training. Professor Giddings defines the 
home as 'Hhe place of development of the social, individual, 
economic, and cultural." 

Ideals in establishing a home. — Much thought, therefore, 
must be given, by those who expect to establish the right kind 
of home, to working out the ideals upon which the life of the 
home is to be based. These standards of life must be clear, 
in order that they may be the guiding principles that direct 
the activity of the home. Order, contentment, hospitality, 
godliness have been called the house blessings. The home 
maker must early reahze that '' man does not live by bread 
alone/' and the other needs must be as carefully considered 
as food, clothing, and shelter. 

A home based on the right principles will be simple. There 
will be simplicity of living, honesty in the expression of what 
is offered in the home. No ostentation or living beyond 
one's means; simplicity in entertainment in offering freely 
of what one has to friends, without apology or explanation ; 
simple furnishings, simple, healthful food, simple, artistic 
clothing, all help to simplify life and give the home makers 



4 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

more time for the family joys and intercourse. It some- 
times requires much courage and independence of thought 
and action to achieve this ideal when one's neighbors give 
elaborate dinners which are paid for with difficulty, ^eek the 
excitement of moving-picture and vaudeville shows when 
they can scarcely be afforded, and neglect the allurements 
of woods and fields and streams, which offer more healthful 
and simpler pleasures. Modern life has brought much that 
is complex, but a well-organized home with right ideals will 
be run so as to plan the spending of the family income to 
the best advantage of all and to consider the spiritual as 
well as the material needs of the family. Simplicity of living 
will add much to the independence and freedom of the 
group. 

A home with right ideals will be harmonious. The mem- 
bers will be kind, loving, and forgiving as well as thoughtful 
of one another. The religious life of the family will have 
expression in the acts of kindness to one another and al- 
truistic expression outside the home. No home is well 
planned which omits to place as one of its foundation rocks 
the thought of relationship and responsibility to the Creator. 
Godliness is the crowning blessing of the home. 

Cleanliness and orderliness should be fixed ideals, for 
upon them the health and comfort of the whole family 
depend. Mrs. Richards used to speak of the beauty of 
cleanliness as the most costly of all beauty. Cleanliness in 
the preparation and handling of foods, cleanliness in the 
care of clothing, rooms, and furnishings leads to happiness 
and a more healthful family life. Sanitary science demands 
that thought be given to the care of the household furnish- 
ings in order that disease may be prevented. Simplicity in 
furnishings will help the housewife to achieve this aim. It 
is her duty to her family to see that refuse is quickly removed 



THE HOME 5 

and the house kept free from dirt and dust, that the plumb- 
ing is in order, that the heating fulfills the requirements of 
the family. The best investment made by the family is 
that which goes to promote the health of the family. Upon 
orderliness in the household depends much of the family 
pleasure. In the ideal home, the housewife will be so sys- 
tematic in her management that there will be little friction 
in the machinery of administration. A time and place for 
everything will help. Simplicity, orderliness, cleanliness, 
honesty, godliness, will lead to harmony in the life of the 
home. 

The home maker in planning must strive for standards 
that will develop all sides of the individual and fulfill the 
needs of all the members of the family. Health of mind 
should be sought as well as health of body. Consideration 
should be given to questions of entertainment, to the savings 
which give a feeling of security, and to opportunities for the 
exercise of altruism in various forms of charitable and re- 
ligious expression. Home makers have a wonderful duty to 
perform in the education of their children so that all sides 
of their natures may be fully developed. 

No one can estimate the influence of a home that is so 
organized that the life of all its members is centered there. 
From it inspiration, cheer, and comfort radiate to guide and 
help those who enjoy its life daily. The friends who come 
and go carry with them the memory of the inspiration and 
refreshment offered. There is no element so vital in char- 
acter building as the influence of a well-ordered, godly home 
where parents have united in the thoughtful training of 
their children. 

Education in the home. — The aim in the establishment 
of most homes is the training and education of children in 
order that most efficient individuals may be given to the 



6 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

community. It is the duty of parents to give their children 
every possible chance and so to educate them that they 
understand fully the meaning of right living, a training 
that will take into consideration all phases of education. 

Physical education. — Because of the rapidity of modern 
life, time must be given for careful^ deliberate training by 
parents in the right use of the bodily machinery, if effective 
citizens are to be produced. Parents should teach their 
children so to live that the demands of this machinery are 
recognized. 

Food is of primary consideration for it produces the force 
to run the machine. Unless the food is of the proper kind 
and of sufficient amount the machinery will not run well. 
Knowledge in relation to foods and their nutritive values 
is the power that will aid young home makers in supply- 
ing proper nourishment for the home table and in training 
their children to think carefully about the choice of foods 
eaten. Self-control in selection of food should be a part of 
early training. Food, moreover, should be taken only at 
regular intervals in order that the digestive organs may have 
time to manufacture the necessary secretions. Attention 
and thought are given by few parents to the consideration 
of the habit of drinking sufficient water of the right kind. 
Water should be safe and children should be trained to 
realize that a sufficient amount must be taken in order that 
the blood stream may be diluted and carry to the tissues 
the necessary food in solution in that stream. Sufficient 
water is an absolute necessity, in order too that the useless 
material of the body may be carried away. 

Thought must be given also to daily exercise so that the 
supply of food material to all the tissues of the body is kept 
up through proper circulation. Fresh air is free for all and 
an absolute necessity. Children should be trained to think 



THE HOME 7 

about the ventilation of rooms in which they live, eat, and 
sleep in order that the proper amount of fresh air may be 
supplied. Windows should be opened at night both at the 
top and bottom for circulation of air, and all rooms thoroughly 
aired every day. Remember that heated air rises. Sleep is a 
requirement of all in order that the cells of the body may have 
time to recuperate and be ready for the work of the next day. 
Growing children should be taught the necessity of sleeping 
from eight to ten hours according to their age. 

Cleanliness of the person should be as carefully considered 
as proper food. The bath, as well as the bodily functions, 
will be taught by the mother who wishes to produce 
healthy, happy human beings. Selection of clothing is 
equally important, for the body must be properly protected, 
if it is to perform its necessary work. Physical welfare is 
also promoted by systematic work, something which must 
be done each day ; and every wise mother trains each of her 
children so that he feels a responsibility to produce something 
daily according to his age and capacity. The home is thus 
helping to train in foresight and responsibility. Physical 
well-being is also sustained through opportunity for relaxa- 
tion, pleasure, and amusement. This is essential in order 
that normal people may be produced. A good book, a con- 
cert, a walk with a congenial companion, the family party, 
also minister to the complete physical development of the 
individuals of the home. They give rest to the overworked 
nerves and should be so chosen and planned that they really 
afford rest rather than excitement. Much of this phys- 
ical education and training may be learned in the school 
and based on the scientific studies, but it remains for the 
mother to bring home to the child through daily attention 
and thought the necessity for this important phase of edu- 
cation. 



8 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Religious education is not now as much as in years past 
a part of home training. The home is the natural place for 
the fostering of religious ideals. The school and church may 
offer instruction — all of which may be valuable, if it is care- 
fully and systematically planned — but the wise mother will 
still supplement at home and offer the personal instruction 
and guidance which cannot fail to help to build character 
and be a guiding influence through life after the child has 
left the home. In the ideal home both father and mother 
will unite in this training. Reverence for God should 
early be inculcated. This should lead to direct instruction 
in reverence and respect for elders, parents, and teachers, 
which is so often lacking in the youth of to-day. 

Intellectual and aesthetic education, — While much intel- 
lectual and aesthetic training is given outside the home, in 
our schools, and through outside agencies such as lectures 
and clubs, the ideal home, which stands for culture and 
training of its young, will be a clearing house for knowledge 
gained outside. It will furnish side lights which will be 
broadening and enlightening. All education is not found 
in books. Contact with people of culture offers inspiration 
and a fund of information. Discussions at home, with 
parents and friends, of subjects under consideration in school 
are of much value. Good books, magazines, pictures, and 
music, all aid in the cultivation of aesthetic and intellectual 
ideals. The selection of furnishings, the discussion of art 
subjects, such as pictures, color, sculpture, architecture, 
should supplement the instruction given in the school and 
find a place in homes where the parents are anxious to 
secure the full all-round development of their children. 

" Man does not live unto himself alone." Children should 
be taught early in life that each must have an aim. There 
is a goal to attain, and life is not merely the achieving of 



THE HOME 9 

daily pleasure, but there should be an aim aside from such 
personal gratification. Each individual should be taught 
to feel his social obligations and his duties to the community 
in which he lives. The development of a social conscious- 
ness in the minds of the children is a part of the duty of 
parents. The children of the home are to be the coming 
statesmen and leaders of the people, the directors of savings 
banks and insurance companies, the trustees and directors 
of school boards, hospitals, and churches, the ministers, mis- 
sionaries, doctors, lawyers, and tradespeople of the world. 
Children should be trained to act together to appreciate the 
necessity of thought for others, to be ready and willing to 
lend a hand in work for civic or other betterment. Parents 
can do much by interesting children early in organizations 
that are working for such good; respect for government 
depends largely on the ideals set up in the home. Clubs 
(which have an altruistic aim) started in the family circle 
and composed of the children's friends are of value in that 
they begin to call attention to the duty of man to his neigh- 
bor and to the improvement of the community in which he 
lives. 

Ideals of honor, thoughtfulness, self-control, responsibility, 
discipline, foresight, self-sacrifice, love, reverence, and order 
should be early inculcated by parents who are training their 
children wisely. There is nothing that so destroys the har- 
mony of home life and makes for discord as selfishness, dis- 
regard for the feelings and property of others, rudeness, and 
impatience. 

The mistress of the home. — Most girls look forward to 
the time when they will be the mistresses of their own 
homes. The responsibilities of home management and ad- 
ministration are very great and not to be entered into lightly, 
but with much thought and preparation in order that the 



10 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

home maker may guide and direct wisely the lives of those 
given to her care. Home making is a profession, and 
women should be educated to fill this position as men are 
trained to occupy positions in office, factory, or court. 
The home maker must fill many niches in her home and at 
the same time have the ability to direct with force and initia- 
tive all the business of the household. Training for home 
making will give woman this power, for she will understand 
the physical, religious, intellectual, and aesthetic needs of 
her family and will be able to minister to them. The 
knowledge and ability gained through training in home 
making will enable woman to run her household in a business- 
like way, and as she begins to understand the sciences and 
learns to use them, real joy and pleasure will be hers in the 
performance of the daily duties of her profession. Girls of 
to-day have a wonderful opportunity in the schools to receive 
much of scientific training for the profession of home making. 
Besides training there are many characteristics which the 
ideal mistress should possess in order that her home making 
may be a success. Health should be placed first. The girl 
of to-day who expects to be the home maker and mother of 
to-morrow must obey the laws of Nature and each day 
consider thoughtfully the cultivation of physical strength 
and energy. There is nothing which is communicated so 
quickly in a home as the exuberance of spirit which comes 
from perfect health. Depression and lack of cheer often 
pervade the home in which the mistress is low spirited be- 
cause of ill health. Sympathy and tact in dealing with servants 
and family help to keep the machinery running well. Fore- 
sight in management will prevent many a catastrophe. 
Foresight enables the home maker also to plan the routine 
work of the house in a systematic way. Self-control should 
be practiced at all times. It enables the mistress to " keep 



THE HOME 11 

her head/' to remain calm and cool, to rise above the dis- 
turbance of petty things, and consequently to direct others 
more sanely. Good common sense, a rare virtue, helps many 
a woman to weigh carefully the relative importance of house- 
hold duties. • A brisk walk, even though some duties must 
be neglected for its sake, will help her to regain spirits or 
freshen her for a difficult task. The ideal mistress is m con- 
trol and is not controlled by things. She keeps constantly 
in mind the fact that the house was made for man to live 
in and be happy in. A rest may add to that happiness in a 
way an immaculately ordered room may not. At the same 
time the home maker must weigh the relative importance of 
duties, for a neglect of details and order will also lead to 
unhappiness. 

The ideal home maker is thoughtful, cordial, polite, and 
hospitable. She remembers the birthdays and other anni- 
versaries of the family and friends. She is ready with notes 
of cheer and condolence and is anxious to offer protection 
to those who need her sympathy and help. She is cheery 
and optimistic and her manner expresses these charms. 
She is neat and tidy in appearance at all times, in her room, 
in negligee, at the breakfast or noonday meal. Her working 
clothes are neat and adapted to her duties. No lace-bef rilled 
kimonos or dressing sacques are seen for dish washing or 
other household duties. She has time to change her gown 
before the evening meal when the family is united. If she 
prepares this meal, she arranges her work so that time is 
available for a little rest and opportunity for change of cloth- 
ing which, while adapted to her work, shows thought and 
consideration for the home-coming members of the family. 

The ideal home maker will find time each day for rest 
and inspiration. It may be only half an hour, but she needs 
at least this for reading and reflection. She will feel the 



12 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

need of spiritual help and guidance from her Bible or other 
source of comfort. The newspaper should be followed daily, 
but not allowed to exclude such literature for study as time 
and inclination direct. As time permits, it is wise for her 
to interest herself in clubs and reading circles in order that 
her vision may extend beyond the duties of daily routine 
and there may be gained a new thought or idea that will 
benefit the whole family circle. 

The mistress of the home expresses her ideals also in the 
furnishings of her home. They will be simple and in ac- 
cordance with ideals of beauty and harmony. Some one has 
said that the home should be so furnished that it will neither 
oppress nor embarrass those who are invited within. Ruskin 
said ; ''If you have sense and feeling, determine what sort 
of a house will be fit for you ; determine to work for it, to 
get it, and to die in it, if the Lord will. I mean one that 
you can entirely enjoy and manage, but which you will not 
be proud of, except as you make it charming in its modesty." 

Entertainment in the home. — Human beings must associ- 
ate in a more or less intimate degree. This is a natural and 
right desire. In the modest home parents should so plan 
in the expenditure of their income that some of the portion 
reserved for pleasure is used in simple entertainment within 
the home, of guests and friends of both children and parents. 
Simplicity in entertainment, genuine hospitality to the pass- 
ing stranger should be a possibility in every real home, 
where husband and children have only to request, knowing 
that the mistress of the home will arrange if possible to 
offer a welcome to the friend for dinner or luncheon or to 
stay the night. Friendships come naturally and sponta- 
neously to young people in their school and business associa- 
tions, in their summer travels and vacations. Parents 
should respect this expression of individual selection and 



THE HOME 13 

guide during childhood in the wise choice of friends. The 
natural desire follows to entertain under the home roof 
those preferred and selected, and this should be a possibility. 
There should be no thirst for display and ostentation in 
entertainment, but the simple entertainment of those the 
family delights to have within its circle. The fact that 
social entertainment on a large scale bores and wearies is 
proof enough of its inability to satisfy what is a natural 
desire for human associations, but simple entertainment and 
hospitality brings about right companionship which enriches 
and develops. There is a wider intercourse between men 
that the home does not satisfy, but this is reserved for club, 
for church, for association outside the home from which are 
selected those to whom one is drawn and to whom the en- 
tertainment within the home is later offered. 

The ideal home maker will thus train her family in right 
living, for in this way only can effective citizens be given 
to the community. This is the obligation of every girl 
who enters upon home making. Mrs. Ellen Richards out- 
lines some of the characteristics of right living. Aim to 
keep them in mind in starting a home. 



Quotations from Mrs. Richards' Writings. ^ 

There is no noble life without a noble aim. 

The watchword of the future is the welfare and security 
of the child. 

Love of home and of what the home stands for converts 
the drudgery of daily routine into a high order of social 
service. 

The economy of right uses depends largely upon the home 

1 Written for the Mary Lowell Stone Home Economics Exhibit. 



14 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

maker and brings the return in health, happiness, and 
efficiency. 

Home Economics stands for the ideal home life of to-day 
unhampered by the traditions of the past. 

Home Economics stands for the utilization of the resources 
of modern science to improve the home life. 

Home Economics stands for the freedom of the home from 
the dominance of things and their due subordination to 
ideals. 

Home Economics stands for that simplicity in material 
surroundings which will free the spirit for the more im- 
portant and permanent interests of the home and of society. 

EXERCISES 

1. What is meant by unity in the home ? 

2. How can the true "home atmosphere" be established? 

3. What is the aim of home making ? 

4. What is meant by basing home making upon right ideals ? 

5. Who was Mrs. Ellen Richards? What did she contribute 
to the Home Economics movement ? Try to arrange to celebrate 
her birthday. 

6. What are some of the characteristics of a well-ordered home ? 

7. What education should a home provide ? 

8. What physical education should the home foster ? 

9. If you were a home maker, what religious training do you 
think should be given in the home ? What intellectual and aesthetic 
training ? 

10. Name some characteristics which the ideal home mistress 
should possess. 



CHAPTER II 
THE HOUSE 

When we go house hunting what an event it is and how 
dreaded ! Yet it should be a happy occasion. How dif- 
ferent a matter it was in the early days of our country when 
most well-to-do people built a new homestead for the new 
family ! There are still those who have the satisfaction of 
planning and building their own houses, or who may re- 
model some older house in a small town or in the country. 
But most city dwellers must rent an apartment or flat, or 
a small house in the suburban town. There are, however, 
many good schemes for helping those with moderate incomes 
to buy houses in the suburbs. 

What we look for in a house. — No matter what the type 
of house, whether primitive as the Eskimo's hut, or as com- 
plete as modern science and art can create, it should meet a 
few apparently simple needs. Protection from the elements, 
from cold and heat, from rain and snow and damp, from 
intruders who might interfere with the family safety or 
possessions ; water at hand ; some way of getting rid of 
waste ; space for the family, for all their occupations and 
belongings ; room for a guest : these were sought by even 
the cave dwellers. And we have not passed beyond these 
simple needs. Our enemies are of a different kind, but the 
daily paper shows that we must pay for safety locks ; and 
while wild animals no longer prowl about, we find it almost 
impossible to keep out rats and mice and harmful insects^ 
The '' house " fly is now called a '^ typhoid " ^y, and not 

15 



16 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



permitted even as a casual visitor. To all these needs we 
have added what the cave man did not seek for, since his 
life was largely out of doors. We must have air and sun 
within doors. Doctors are now talking about house diseases. 
Tuberculosis is one of these, and the fight against it must 
be made, in part, just here. It is for sun and air that we 
have to pay large rents in town ; and it is partly to secure 




Courtesy of " The House Beautiful." 
Fig. 1. — A house in the Italian style. 



these in our large dwellings that tenement-house commis- 
sions exist, to protect those who cannot protect themselves. 
Then, too, there must be protection against fire, not only 
by the fire department but in the house itself. Modern 
nerves, moreover, demand quiet. We may want our own 
victrola, but we do not care to hear our neighbor's, and walls 
and floors must be built to keep out sounds. We call these 
simple needs. They would seem to be human rights, but 
even now in this twentieth century how many houses rank 
100 per cent in all these ; in warmth and coolness at proper 
seasons ; perfect dryness, ventilation, and lighting ; safety 
from fire and intruders ; and room for each member of the 
family to be by himself, and to keep an open door to guests ? 



THE HOUSE 



17 



Yet, we cannot be as well nor as happy nor as useful as we 
should, until these are achieved. Every woman must know 
how to find these things and must learn to demand them, 
and we must all work together until healthful conditions are 
possible for all. 




Fig. 2. — A modern English house. 



Exterior and surroundings. — As we approach various 
houses on our hunting trip, we look for what is pleasing in 
the way of beauty and homelikeness, neatness, and general 
pleasantness. The house itself should give an invitation to 
enter, and should add to the beauty of the countryside ^r 
the town. 

Apartment and block houses. — The question of rent is 
so important to the inhabitant of the apartment house, 
that the thought of architecture seems almost forgotten. 
Too many builders of such houses attract by cheap showi- 



18 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

ness. Within a few years, however, apartment and block 
houses have been built that are dignified and strong in 
construction. Those of soft brown or dull red bricks, with 
harmonious ornamentation are pleasing to the eye. 

Surroundings are important, and the apartment seeker 
must think of this as well as of the interior. Avoid fashion- 
able streets, if the income is moderate. Rents are high in 
such neighborhoods. Find, if possible, a quiet street. Often 
in the side streets of the city the most satisfactory houses 
are found. If there are shops in the house or near, notice 
the kind. Avoid those that give off odors or that might be 
noisy, as, for instance, a laundry ; also those that are likely 
to cause litter and attract flies, as a vegetable stand. Stables, 
gas houses, factories, and noisy railways should also be 
avoidad. Notice if high buildings cut off sun, air, and 
view. 

Convenience to some conveyance is often a necessity, and 
nearness to school, church, and business all have to be con- 
sidered. If one cannot have all of these, for ideal spots 
are few, thought should be given to balancing the objections 
and selecting the best situation. 

Choose an apartment with a plain and tasteful entrance, 
rather than the cheap and tawdry variety which adds to 
the rent and has no real beauty, xhere is probably no ques- 
tion of lawn or garden, but it may be that there is a green 
spot opposite, or near, or trees and plants at the entrance 
Window boxes add much to the beauty of the house. 

Architecture of the single house. — Here we have an op- 
portunity to study one of the most delightful of the applied 
arts — domestic architecture. Despite many failures, house 
architecture in America is much better than it was a few 
years ago. Not only are the younger architects doing 
strong work in this field, but our taste, as a people, is im- 



THE HOUSE 



19 



proving. For this is a taste to be cultivated, just as much 
as the taste for pictures, or music, or literature. 

As in all other kinds of architecture we must learn from 
other countries and periods. Yet we have made grievous 
mistakes just here. Witness the French roof of about 1860, 




Fig, 3. — A square house, with hip roof, New England, 1780. 



an adaptation of the Mansard, dignified in its place, but 
ugly as the roof of a small dwelling. Then came, after the 
Centennial of 1876, the attempt to use an English style of 
architecture in the so-called Queen Anne ; and there have 
been thousands of wooden boxes adorned with gables and 
porches, curious medleys, lacking in simplicity, strength, and 
beauty. 
At present we find certain well-developed styles, adapted 



20 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

from the Italian, the English, and the Colonial and post- 
Colonial of our own early days. The Colonial styles show 
both Dutch and English influence. In the stately Colonial 
mansions with pediments and columns, there is a suggestion 
of the Greek. On the western coast a Spanish type is being 
used, after the fashion of the early Spanish missions, in some 




Courtesy of " The House Beautiful." 
Fig. 4. — A modern house, semicolonial. 

eases most happily. The Italian is taken from the villa of 
Italy and is for large houses only (Fig. 1). It is broad and 
low, and formal in composition ; well suited to a dignified 
house with much space about it. The English is more in- 
formal in composition, sometimes rambling in structure, 
the roof much in evidence (Fig. 2). 

In the Colonial style a number of types have developed, 



THE HOUSE 21 

both for the large and the small house. Our forefathers 
built strongly and simply, whatever style they used; they 
did not always originate, they frequently adapted. Some 
one has spoken disparagingly of the Colonial as '' carpen- 
ter's Greek " ; yet while there was doubtless some poor 
architecture in those days, there were certainly many houses 
suited to their setting, that expressed with dignity the life 
of that time. Under Colonial we class the square house, 
two-storied, with the '^ hip " roof, and pillared portico or 
porch (see Figs. 3 and 4). This type of roof is still much 
used, and is suitable to small houses of the square cottage or 
bungalow type (see Fig. 11). The more oblong house 
with the '^ gambrel " roof, sometimes one-storied, sometimes 
two, is a well-known Colonial type (see Figs. 5, 6, and 7). 
There are still simpler houses, built during the same period 
and later, those of one or two stories, with generous sloping 
roof, very plain and claiming no architectural style, but never- 
theless showing very good lines. Then, too, we find houses 
with a long sloped roof at the back, known as '^ lean-to " 
or '' salt-box " houses. This latter style is being used at 
present in small suburban houses, sometimes with good 
effect (see Figs. 8 and 9). 

Whatever the style, there are some definite principles to 
be borne in mind, and others less easy to define, quite im- 
portant — matters of feeling largely. There is a certain 
relation between material and style that must be noticed. 
As a rule, wood is better for a small than a large house. A 
large house built of wood may seem barnlike, or may re- 
semble a summer hotel. That the English house is in 
better style than ours is due to the fact that stone or brick 
or plaster must be used in England, and architecture has 
developed accordingly. As wood becomes more costly here, 
style in architecture will accommodate itself to other materials. 



22 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



Reenforced concrete, for example, seems to need a treatment 
quite its own. The combinations of different kinds of ma- 
terial, say, stucco and wood, are hard to manage, and are 
not usually good. 




Fig. 5. — House with gambrel roof, New England, 1765. 

recent and poor addition. 



The piazza is a 



Remember that the roof is an all-important part of a 
house, and its outline must not be much broken, except 
when this is necessary to give space and light inside. Dor- 
mer windows must be very simply treated, especially when 
used in a house of the Colonial style. 

Every addition to the house in the way of porch, or 
dormer, or window must be made to seem a part of the 
house, by right proportion and placing, with as few " fancy" 
touches as possible. The old Colonial builders were es- 
pecially successful in their treatment of doorways, porches, 
and windows, and their work should be studied with this 
thought in mind. A dignified two-storied house with fine 



THE HOUSE 



23 



gambrel roof is made commonplace by a straight, narrow 
piazza stretching across the front. Remove such a piazza, 
add a square porch in front, or possibly at the end, and the 
change is wonderful (compare Figs. 5 and 6). If the house 




Fig. 6. — The same housa, as it might be. Notice the fine effect of the 
windows as compared with Fig. 5. 

has one main portion, everything should be made a part of 
that. If the additions are large, they must look as if they 
grew together. Notice how in Figure 1 the addition at the 
right has this intimate connection with the body of the 
house ; in Figure 4, note that the porches are subordinated 
to the house. 

An architect studies what he would call '' balance " in 
his design. Notice the balance of the grouping of the 
windows on the two sides of the porch in Figurs 4. In 
Figure 2 there is a beautiful balance in the gables and win- 
dows at the right of the building, and although these gables 




Fig. 7. — A one-storied house with gambrel roof, New England, 18th 
century. A similar design is used at the present time. 







Fig. 8. — A "lean-to" of plain design. New England, about 1750. 

24 



THE HOUSE 



25 



are at the right and not in the center, the building is well 
balanced as a whole. 

The architect knows, too, that light and dark masses, 
rightly placed, give beauty. In Figure 4 notice the beauti- 
ful shadows cast by the cornice, and the shadows of the 
porch. In Figure 2 the two recesses for the door and the 
upper porch give pleasing shadows. 




Fig. 9. — A modern small house with the " lean-to " motif. 

long slope faces the front. 



Notice that the 



The color is a large item. Study the surroundings of the 
house and determine what colors will mingle with the set- 
ting, without standing out glaringly. Soft browns and 
buffs and grays and dull reds are almost always good. 
White is good where there are green spaces and trees. 

What we seek is simplicity, repose, dignity, and unity. 
The eye should be able to see the house as a whole, and not 
be forced to move restlessly from one detail to another. 



26 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



How are you to know what is good ? Study what you see 
done by good architects, both in actual work and in print. 
Do not be discouraged if you do not understand the best 




Fig. 10. — A modern subuT'ban house of no definite style, but pleasing in effect 

at first. You will soon learn to distinguish merit and prefer 
it to " gingerbread work." 

Many magazines dealing with country and suburban life illustrate 
excellent types of houses. Magazines devoted to architecture and 
some art magazines give quite a little space to domestic architecture 
both foreign and American. These can usually be found in Ubraries, 
and some of them wherever magazines are sold. 

Exposure of the single house. — Sunshine on all sides of 
the house and at every window is what we need. This can 
only be secured by placing the house in what may be 
called a cornerwise position in respect to the four points 
of the compass. That is, the house should have its corners 



THE HOUSE 



27 



in these directions with its face southeast or southwest, 
northeast or northwest. Wherever free to choose, place 
the house in this way. The direction of the street often 
determines the position of the house in regard to these 
points of the compass, and unfortunately, there is a preju- 
dice in favor of laying out streets that run north and 
south, east and west. Sometimes the house can stand at 
a slight angle to the street. 




^ \\^}iJ: ^s-J^iiWHOX^ 



Fig. 11. — A modern square cottage, or "bungalow," well proportioned. 
A good design for a village house. 



The house should stand as far back from the street or 
road as the grounds permit. If there is a choice between 
higher and lower level, the former is usually preferable on 
account of soil drainage. To be sure, such a house is more 
exposed to wind, but trees and other houses may serve as 
wind breaks. 

The shade of trees is grateful in summer, but no matter 
at what sacrifice of the tree itself, no house should be shrouded 




Fig, 12. — A postcolonial doorway, New Jersey, about 1800. 



28 



THE HOUSE 29 

in foliage. Trees should not be too near the house for two 
reasons ; their roots may penetrate the walls of a cellar, and 
their shade lying on the walls and roof is bad for the fabric 
of the house and for the health of the occupants. In set- 
ting out a tree its size when full grown should be estimated, 
and the tree set at such a distance that its future shade will 
not rest on the house. A verandah will give shade near by, 
though even this should not interfere, with winter sunshine. 

EXERCISES 

1. Try to distinguish different styles in the home town. Compare 
examples of two different periods, and see which is better. Compare 
two of the same period. 

2. Bring magazines to class, and discuss the illustrations, which 
often include both good and bad. 

3. Make a collection of cuttings from magazines and advertise- 
ments. Many postcards of good historic houses are published, 
and are not difficult to obtain. 

4. Photograph typical houses for the personal and school collec- 
tion. 



CHAPTER III 
HOUSE PLANS AND CONSTRUCTION 

After all, the exterior of a house should be shaped and de- 
termined by its inner comfort and convenience. The Scotch 
phrase '^ far ben " speaks of that inner privacy, the hearth, 
which is the heart of the home, and around which everything 
else is grouped. Some one has said : " Begin with the 
chimney and fireplace and build the house around that." 

Arrangement of rooms. — In spite of the fact that we must 
allow for radiators, registers, and gas logs, there is oppor- 
tunity for much choice in the arrangement of our rooms. 
Certain things may be said of both apartment and house. 
Have as many separate rooms as the purse will allow. If 
there must be economy here, combine rooms in such a way 
that separate bedrooms may be retained. One may have a 
general living-room, instead of sitting-room and parlor ; 
the dining table may even be moved into the living-room or 
the kitchen, rather than give up separate bedrooms for the 
sake of the dining-room. This applies- only to crowded 
conditions, because we want our kitchen, dining-room, and 
sitting-room separate ; though, in the simple home where 
a woman does her own work some doubling up, as suggested, 
saves many weary steps. 

An important matter is the way that rooms open into 
each other. Each room should have an exit independent 
of every other room. Where rooms open into each other 
see that they can be cut off, when necessary, for warmth and 
privacy. Notice that the arrangement of doors and win- 
dows permits of draughts of air when they are desirable. 

30 



HOUSE PLANS AND CONSTRUCTION 31 

Wall space. — Many rooms that give an impression of 
cheerfulness actually have no places for furniture because 
they are so cut into by doors and windows, fireplaces or radia- 
tors. See that the bedroom has a place for bed and bureau, 
and that each room is so planned that there is space for the 
furniture appropriate to it. One house was found to have 
no wall space large enough for the upright piano except in 
the dining-room or kitchen. 

The kitchen. — See that the kitchen is a comfortable room, 
not too hot in summer. It need not be large to be con- 
venient and practical, but be sure that a draught may pull 
through it. Be careful to have the kitchen, supply closet, 
and dining-room in close relation to each other. Fancy 
yourself walking from one to the other, and see which arrange- 
ment gives the fewest steps. 

The bathroom. — Notice that the location of the bathroom 
makes it easily accessible to all, and that it is light and well 
ventilated. 

Closets. — Remember to count the closets and cupboards 
and see if every available space has been used for this pur- 
pose. There is little danger that you will find too many. 

Entry or hall. — This is important to consider in the 
smaller house. We all like a wide, comfortable space as the 
front door opens to us. But in a large house a hall with 
broad and easy stairway, perhaps a fireplace, is even more 
pleasing. Do not have a cramped or crowded entrance, but 
be sure that space is not used here that might give more 
real comfort in the living-room or the dining-room. 

Stairs. — Notice these particularly. Is the tread com- 
fortable ; are they safe and easy for older people and little 
children ; can trunks be easily carried up and down ? Look 
particularly at the back stairs, which are often awkward and 
dangerous. 



32 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Some other important points. — Remember the servant's 
room. See that it is habitable and planned for human 
comfort. In the apartment look particularly for the arrange- 
ment of rooms in regard to air-shaft and opposite apart- 
ments. Do not forget the placing of fire escapes. Be sure, 
too, in the large dwelling house, that there are fire escapes 
from the upper story. (For ventilation and plumbing, see 
Chapters IV and V.) In a house large enough, plan porches 
or balconies for sleeping out of doors, and also if practical )le, 
a room that can be completely cut off in case of illness. 
Such a room may be placed in a wing or ell. 

Construction of the House 

This is a technical subject in the field of architecture, and 
the details must be worked out by the architect and builder. 
Every householder needs to be informed in regard to certain 
basic facts, however. 

The foundation and cellar. — Never take a house with- 
out looking at the cellar ; and when you are building, be 
willing to put enough money into it to make it good. A 
cellar must be dry, and the foundation strong enough to 
hold the upper structure firmly. Damp in the cellar pene- 
trates the house, and a badly built foundation causes settling 
and cracking of the walls. This is true in an apartment 
house, where we usually ignore the cellar in selecting the 
apartment, trusting that all will be well. One family that 
had suffered a whole winter from various illnesses learned 
in the spring that a foot of water had been standing in the 
cellar. The foundation had been badly laid in the bed of a 
brook. In another apartment the walls cracked and a ceiling 
fell before the flat had been occupied a year, both defects due 
to a poor and badly laid foundation. Of course, good build- 



HOUSE PLANS AND CONSTRUCTION 33 

ing laws and honest inspection will in time do away with such 
conditions. In the meantime, watch the cellar. 

Have good workmen and do not hurry them. If the 
diggers of the cellar strike water, tiles must be laid to draw 
it off. The floor should not be perfectly level, but even 
and inclining gradually to some lower spot. This floor is 
made of a mixture of small broken stone, sand, and cement, 
at least two inches thick and well pounded. When this is 
hard, a layer of mixed Portland cement and sand two inches 
thick is laid over it and made smooth. Such a floor will be 
strong and water-tight. This Portland cement is the best 
material for making a cellar waterproof. It is inexpensive, 
and simple to use. The walls must be plumb, and it is well 
to have a coating of Portland cement placed on the outside. 
Chinks between the stones must be filled in, and an even 
coating of the cement, one inch in thickne-jS, added. This 
should reach below the level of the cellar floor. 

This same method can be applied to an old cellar, by dig- 
ging the earth away outside, to the very bottom line of the 
foundation. This plan is recommended by a practical cellar 
builder, who has found this a permanent cure for many 
damp and leaky cellars. 

Double cellar walls are sometimes used, and are good, 
but they add greatly to the cost of the cellar. 

Materials for the upper structure. — Stone, brick, and con- 
crete are the usual materials for large buildings, and small 
houses in cities must be built of these materials when the 
fire laws require it. They are durable and fireproof, and 
not absorptive of damp if the bricks are well baked and the 
walls well laid. 

Wood has been the material of the average single house, 
on account of its cheapness. It is no longer cheap, if the 
quality is good, for our knowledge of forestry has come too 



34 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

late to save our supply. More and more, brick and cement 
will be used in the small house. This will make for safety 
from fire ; although there is a charm about a well-designed 
wooden house that other materials do not give. The outer 
wall may be covered with clapboards protected by paint 
or cedar shingles. The latter soon weather to a pleasing 
color and will last many years. Stained shingles are also 
much used. 

Stucco, laid upon wood, is increasing in use. It gives 
warmth ; has a pleasing color ; and saves money, in that 
it is lasting, and does away with the expense of repainting. 
This may be used in the renovating of old houses instead of 
paint. 

The house walls. — These must be double, with an air 
space between foi warmth and dryness. In a wooden house 
some good gheathing should be used, of heavy paper made 
for the purpose. Hollow tiles give the necessary air space 
in brick and stone houses. The inner wall must be covered 
with good plaster. This must not freeze while wet, and 
must be thoroughly dry before the house is occupied. One 
thing that we should ask for in the inner wall and ceiling 
and floor is a curve when two surfaces meet at right angles ; 
round corners, as it were. This does away with one trap 
for dirt, and is used in well-built hospitals. The architect 
will tell you that this adds to the cost. The inner finish of 
the walls will be considered in the chapter on decoration. 

The floors. — The floors should be made of well-seasoned 
wood carefully laid. They should be double, in order that 
sound may be deadened. Sometimes other materials are 
used to assist in the deadening of sound. For details in 
regard to the floors see the chapter on House Decoration. 

The roof. — Here the material is all-important. The 
roof must be waterproof, durable, a protection against 



HOUSE PLANS AND CONSTRUCTION 35 

undue heat in the rooms beneath, not too expensive, not too 
difficult to lay, and in harmony with the remainder of the 
house. It will make the house warmer in winter and cooler 
in summer if a layer of mineral wool can be placed directly 
beneath the roof. 

Tiling is beautiful on concrete and stucco houses, but it 
is very costly, and so heavy that the lower structure must 
be especially constructed to hold it. 

Slating is also expensive and cold in effect. 

Cedar shingles are durable, and one of the best of the 
ordinary roof coverings. There is a new method of apply- 
ing shingles that gives the effect of the thatched roof seen 
on the English cottage. 

A felting is being used as an inexpensive roof cover. It is 
cemented at the seams, and fastened with flat nails. It 
does not absorb heat and can be painted if desired. This 
is a good covering for the roof dormer windows. 

Avoid ti7i. It draws heat, needs repair and painting often, 
is noisy when rain falls upon it, and it is ugly. 

Technical details. — The details of wood, stone, and brick 
structure must be studied in some technical guide. Look 
into the matter before you build, talk over plans with the 
architect, and secure good workmen. Poor and cheap work 
are accountable for most defects in our houses. 

Rental. — Rents vary so much in different towns and 
localities that no definite statement can be made beyond 
the fact that rent must never exceed one quarter of the 
whole income. If more than this is paid for rent, ends can- 
not be made to meet except by undue sacrifice elsewhere. 
This is a fact stated by economists that works out in prac- 
tice. Of course, if the rent is one fifth or one sixth of the 
income, so much the better. Within the allotted sum one 
must find the best available. 



36 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

The cost of building must also vary with the locaUty, for 
the cost of material and labor is not the saniie everywhere. 
The following comparison shows how much the average 
cost has increased within a few years. It is the custom for 
a contractor to estimate the cost per cubic foot. When the 
size of the building is decided upon, the nuniber of cubic feet 
is calculated, and this is multiplied by what is proved to 
be the average cost per cubic foot, all labor and materials 
included. At present this is said to be $0.18 to $0.20. 
Ten years ago it was $0.12 to $0.15. 

A country carpenter in Connecticut in 1911 made a plan 
for a small house costing $1200. There were three rooms 
and pantry downstairs and three small rooms upstairs. 
This estimate did not include plumbing. It is evident then 
that $2000 will build only a small house. From $2500 to 
$5000 must be available for average houses. This means 
that we need capital ; that we must save for some time ahead, 
borrow from a good Building and Loan Company, or buy on 
installments. The last is better than renting, provided the 
company selling the house is financially sound, the location 
good, and the house well built. 

No one should venture into such a scheme without con- 
sulting some good business man. 

EXERCISES 

1. Draw a plan of your own apartment or house, and bring to the 
class. Discuss its good and bad points. How would you alter it 
if you could ? Discuss this at home. 

2. Bring to class plans taken from magazines, and discuss in same 
way. This method is more useful than the attempt to draw ideal 
plans. 

3. Visit houses in process of construction. 

4. Ascertain rents in your own locality. Discuss the reasons 
for variation. 

5. Get estimates of the cost of building from some local carpenter. 



CHAPTER IV 
HEATING, VENTILATING, AND LIGHTING 

Heating and ventilating must be studied together, for in 
our desire to shut in warmth and save fuel we too often 
shut out air, and must take great pains to see that this is 
supplied. 

General aim. — We should aim to keep an even tempera- 
ture in all parts of the house (from 68° to 70° Fahrenheit), 
to supply extra moisture, to have an inlet for fresh and an 
outlet for foul air, and to save labor and fuel. Most of our 
heating systems are defective in one or all of these require- 
ments, and to secure them in any degree of perfection means 
a large outlay. But something can be done in each case 
to improve the ordinary practice. 

Air if too dry is injurious to our breathing apparatus, 
our skin, and hair. In one schoohoom a test showed that 
the air was dryer than that of the Desert of Sahara. Yet this 
defect is one of the easiest to overcome. (See each system.) 

The fireplace and grate. — These are unusual nowadays, 
used in summer in the camp or bungalow, in spring and fall 
w^hen little heat is required, and sometimes to supplement 
other systems in winter. The open fire is the poetry of 
heating; nothing should ever supplant it. The heat is 
agreeable, but uneven. Ventilation is secured by the pas- 
sage of air up the chimney, if the chimney is well built, but 
drafts from doors and windows are difficult to prevent. 
Both fireplace and grate are wasteful of fuel, as so much heat 

37 



38 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

passes up the chimney. With coal grates a large shuttei 
can be placed in the opening of the flue, to be used as a 
damper. 

Wood is a luxury to the city dweller and, as usually handled, 
an extravagance in the country. If the wood lot from which the 
supply comes is properly forested, wood is a useful fuel. Every one 
who owns a wood lot should obtain pamphlets on the subject 
from the United States Department of Agriculture. 

The stove. — The first stoves date back to Colonial days, 
and still bear the name of the inventor, Benjamin Franklin. 
The original Franklin stoves are much sought, and there 
are now manufactured, by many stove firms, replicas of some 
Colonial pattern. They are in reality iron fireplaces or 
grates, standing out in the room, and radiating more heat 
into the room than the fireplace. They are used in country 
houses, or wherever an open fire is wanted and no fireplace 
is built in. (See Fig. 13.) 

The type of coal stove known as ^' self-feeding" is most 
common. It is impossible to heat a house evenly with 
them, as it is seldom desirable to have one in each room. 
The room above can be warmed by placing a register over 
the stove, although bad air then passes upstairs ; or by an 
iron " drum " in the upper room over an opening in the ceil- 
ing. If the stove is not well made, coal gas leaks out into 
the room. Moisture must always be supplied by some ves- 
sel standing on the stove top. This is important. Labor 
on this type of stove is now light as it can be made. The 
coal is poured in at the top, feeding the coal bed below 
slowly, and the draft and shaker are so well arranged 
that if cared for at regular hours, the fire will last for a long 
time ; weeks even, as in a furnace. One great objection is 
the space taken in the room, and also the extreme ugliness 
of the patterns commonly on the market. Iron does not 



HEATING, VENTILATING, AND LIGHTING 39 

lend itself to flower patterns and human faces. This is a 
place where good design is much needed. 

The wood stove is used only where fire wood is abundant. 
The heat is intense. The wood in the stove has to be re- 
plenished more often than coal, but the fire will keep over 




Fig. 13. — A modern reproduction of a Franklin stove. 



night if a large stick is put in late and the damper shut. 
The sheet-iron stoves adapted to wood cost less than coal 
stoves. The old-fashioned name for these stoves was " The 
Air Tight," as contrasted with the open Franklin. A wood 
stove when made of soapstone gives a less intense and more 
lasting heat. 



40 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Oil and gas stoves are convenient, when other means of 
heating fail or are absent. They have to be carefully 
watched on account of possible fire. They vitiate the air, 
and frequent airing of the room is necessary. Water in an 
open vessel should always be placed on them to evaporate 
and furnish moisture to the air in the room. 

The hot-air furnace. — In some ways this is one of the 
best methods of heating the small dwelling house. Fresh, 
moist air is easily secured. The heating, however, is not 
even for the house as a whole. In extreme weather the 
rooms are often cold on the windy side. Fresh air is obtained 
by a window, opening into an air box and flue, built into 
the house and opening into a chamber in the furnace, where 
a pan of water supplies moisture. This air box should 
have an outside opening above the level of the ground, in 
order to have better air, and should be carefully screened. 
There must also be a contrivance to regulate the amount 
of air entering. The hot-air registers should be placed in 
the walls at the side of the room rather than in the floor. 
A register in the chimney will give an outlet for bad air 
in those rooms adjoining chimneys. 

Excellent furnaces are rnade that save fuel and labor, 
with appliances that regulate the fire, and the amount of 
heat given off in different kinds of weather and at different 
times of day. 

Steam and hot-water apparatus. — These are the most 
common methods in cities. People differ in their opinions as 
to the merits of the two! Steam is cheaper to install. Hot- 
water apparatus gives ♦^n even heat, and once started, may be 
kept even for the season. Steam heat is controlled more 
quickly, but is more intense, and the heat is less even. With 
both these the secret of success is in having a large furnace 
with a moderate fire rather than a small furnace forced. 



HEATING, VENTILATING, AND LIGHTING 41 

There are patent contrivances for regulating heat and sup- 
plying moisture, but these are not commonly found in inex- 
pensive plants. So here, above all, moisture must he supplied. 
Have some unbreakable bowl or vessel standing on each 
radiator, secured by a wire if it does not stand firmly. A 
water receptacle made to hang on the back, containing a 
heavy piece of cloth like a lamp wick, may be purchased at 
steam apparatus supply shops. Radiators are apt to be 
ugly, and should be as much out 'of sight as possible. In 
the case of steam heat, if the radiator stands under sl window 
see that it is protected by a piece of wood or metal standing 
out from the window sill ; otherwise there may be trouble 
due to cool air condensing the steam in the radiator. In 
expensive plants hot-water apparatus is sometimes hidden 
in wall and floor. 

Some schemes for ventilation. — In an ideal plan, fresh 
air, with dust removed, warmed and moistened, passes into 
the room in such a way that no draft is felt, while bad 
air is removed and carried out of doors. The air should 
usually come in at the top of the room, and pass out at the 
bottom. Inlets and outlets should be distributed over a 
space (say in small openings along the cornice and foot- 
board), and not concentrated in a few large openings. For 
such a system pumps and fans and shafts and flues are 
needed, and the cost is very great ; so great that few such 
systems exist in private dwellings. 

What, then, can the average person do? Windows and 
chimneys must be used. A register in the chimney, near 
the floor, is a good thing with any heating system. Windows 
may be made into ventilators by putting a board under the 
lower sash, thus letting in air between the sashes ; if this is 
felt too much, cheesecloth can be placed over the opening 
and a board placed at an angle to turn the current of air 



42 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

upward. Another plan is to lower the upper sash, and place 
cheesecloth across the opening. Whether air comes in or 
pulls out at a window depends upon the direction of the 
wind, and the position of the window in relation to other 
windows and doors. The place must be studied to see how 
drafts pull, and these arrangements made accordingly. 

A screen as large as a fly screen and covered with cheese- 
cloth is an excellent thing to use in all mild winter weather, 
and may be easily moved from window to window. 

One thing we must write in large letters. DO NOT BE 
AFRAID OF WASTING HEAT. Some people are so 
economical of heat that they breathe foul air all winter, 
night and day. We should save fuel, but we must save 
human beings. 

Remember to air rooms frequently. This may not be necessary 
in the twenty-first century, but it is now with our imperfect ventila- 
tion. If there is a ventilating system with fans, close all inlets and 
outlets in the room while the windows are open ; else the whole 
system stops working. Airing is necessary to remove odors. Have 
windows open at night, in all weather. Delicate people must be 
protected from chill ; but they, more than others, need the steady 
supply of air during sleep. Do not be afraid of night air. What 
else can you breathe at night ? 

Lighting the house. — The kind of Ught that we may 
have is often determined for us by the city supply, or that 
already wired or piped in the apartment or house. Some- 
times we may choose, even in small towns and in the coun- 
try. An electric trolley company often supplies light, and 
there are a number of m^ethods for making a home supply of 
gas. 

Artificial light should be steady, never flickering, lighting 
the room as evenly as possible, soft and not glaring, the 
color not too white, or bluish, or greenish, but inclined to 
the yellow. The placing of lights is something about which 



HEATING, VENTILATING, AND LIGHTING 43 

we are often too careless. For lighting the room well high 
lights seem necessary ; but then they need shading or soften- 
ing, so that the light does not strike directly into the eyes. 
A better effect is obtained by side lights, moderately high, 
than by central lights suspended. All brilliant lights should 
be toned down by some soft shade of glass or other material. 

In planning a house take time to see that the fixed lights 
in each room are conveniently placed for reading and sew- 
ing, and for toilet purposes. 

A reading or sewing light should be low, shaded to protect 
the eyes, and to allow the light to fall upon the book or 
work. It should fall from the left when possible. 

Candles. — Candles are still used for decorative purposes 
or when a soft light is wanted and for warm summer nights. 
Their chief defects are their flickering, and the possibility of 
fire. Candlesticks are now made with small glass shades, 
others with hoods that protect from drafts. Metal and 
paper or silk shades are made to fasten on the candle itself ; 
but something attached to the candlestick is safer. 

Lamps. — Nothing gives a softer and steadier light than 
a good kerosene lamp with a central draft and circular 
wick, or a lamp of the " student " type. They do not give 
a disagreeable odor, and are not dangerous if well cared for. 
A denatured alcohol lamp gives a pleasant, but rather too 
white light. It will not be used commonly until denatured 
alcohol is cheaper. One great advantage of the lamp is 
that it is movable, and may be placed where it is most needed 
at the time. 

Gaslight. — The " batswing " flame is passing by, for 
mantle burners use no more gas, and give a more brilliant 
light. If you have the old-fashioned flame, see that it is 
even in shape. If it is not, something is wrong with the 
" tip." This you can remove yourself and clean with fine 



44 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

wire, or sharp edge. A new tip may be needed. This kind 
of flame needs a shade to protect it from the motion of the 
air. 

A mantle burner gives so vivid and white a light that a 
shade is required to soften it. See that the mantle is 
straight, and that it is not jarred. Have extra mantles on 
hand, and learn how to place them. 

Electricity. — Where electricity is used, we need to be 
very careful about placing the light, and about shading it. 
A foreigner once remarked that we have much eye trouble 
in America because our lights are too bright. Probably we 
have swung too far from the tallow dip and pine knot of 
pioneer days. Doubtless, a bright electric light, unshaded, 
strikes the eye like a little flash of lightning. Many well- 
shaded and sometimes artistic lamps are on the market, 
and home-made shades will serve the purpose. We should 
be particularly careful of the eyes of little children when elec- 
tricity is the lighting medium. 

EXERCISES 

1. State good and bad points in common heating systems. 

2. Why should the pure air usually come in at the ceiling, and 
bad air be drawn out at the floor ? 

3. Send for and study the circulars issued by manufacturers of 
heating apparatus. They often contain plans for ventilation as 
well. 

4. Study the heating system in your own home. Can it be 
improved without much outlay ? 

5. Visit, if possible, some large institution where there is a good 
system of heating and ventilating. 



CHAPTER V 
THE WATER SUPPLY AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE 

Is it not strange that though we have almost conquered the 
air, we have not yet fully learned to control our water supply, 
and many people still trust to luck that the water they 
drink is unpolluted ? This is one cause of the yearly deaths 
from typhoid, and the inj uring for life of many who live 
through the fever. And this is only one of the evils from 
impure water. 

What are our sources of supply? How shall we find 
clean water, and how shall we purify it if it becomes pol- 
luted? Scientists can tell us what to do and how to do it. 
We need to study the watd* supply and disposal of waste 
together, since it is waste matter that pollutes water. 

Remember that clean drinking water is a matter of money. 
Every community can have it by paying for it. 

Sources. — We may collect rain water in tanks. In Ber- 
muda this is the only source of supply. Or we may use 
surface water from rivers or lakes. Or we may find a spring 
welling out from some hillside, coming from deep down in 
the earth, slowly filtered through leaves and soil. Or we 
may reach these hidden stores by digging wells. 

How to prevent contamination. — Nature has her own 
ways of purifying water if we do not interfere. As water 
slowly passes downward through the soil it is cleansed, 
largely by filtration and partly by the aid of certain bacteria 
which oxidize the impurities. As the water flows along in a 
slow-moving river, or is held in a lake, the impurities tend to 

45 



iQ SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

settle. Air and sunlight also help to purify it. It is only 
when we let waste matter collect and seep through some 
stratum of soil into the well or spring, or when we pour it, 
untreated, into brook and river, that Nature cannot work 
fast enough and then we pay the penalty. A most terrible 
epidemic of typhoid in Lawrence, Massachusetts, was traced 
to one case of " walking typhoid," where an outhouse was 
built above a brook that ran into the river supply and con- 
taminated the water of the whole city. So our watchward 
is : " Guard the sources from all uncleanness." 

Rain water is used when other supplies are lacking. It is 
caught as it pours from the roof and pipes into a cistern. 
The pipes must be so arranged that after a dry spell the 
first falling water is turned away from the cistern, until all 
the dust has been washed from the roof, gutters, and pipes. 
The cistern must be cleaned out at least once a year. This 
gives a clean, soft water, with a " flat " taste that many 
people do not like. 

A spri7ig, to be safe, must be above all sources of pollution. 
Some town or state geologist should be able to tell you how 
the strata of earth lie, and what probability there is of 
danger. The spring should be dug out, cemented, screened, 
covered, and piped to the house. 

The best thing to be said about a well is : Do not have 
one. If your property is large, and you know the lay of your 
land, and have all waste properly removed, a well is fairly 
safe. Or if you make an artesian bore, going below bed 
rock, the water is free from organic impurities, but may be 
'^ hard " with lime or iron. In a village or small town the 
ordinary well is too unsafe to use. You may cement it, 
have the surface about it clean, cover it, be careful of your 
drainage ; even then you may have trouble from careless 
though quite distant neighbors. Every village and smalJ 



WATER SUPPLY AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE 47 

town should work for a common and safe water supply. 
Some people cling to their wells with almost personal affection. 

The co7nmon supply is often brought from a distance at 
the expense of the taxpayer, but at a less cost in the end 
than the loss of human life or human vigor. The source, 
whether river or lake, must be freed from all filth by removing 
outhouses and refuse, and it must be made safe by constant 
guarding; in large systems there must be a patrol. Picnic 
parties, campers, and bathers must be kept off. Filtration 
plants of proper size must be installed no matter at what 
cost. A filtration plant is a large bed of gravel and sand 
through which the supply slowly filters before it reaches the 
consumer. Our large cities are learning this, and are spend- 
ing millions of dollars ; and some day our small towns will 
take like precautions. It is a mistake to value other luxuries 
above filtration plants. 

Ordinary precautions. — If you use an unclean city 
supply, a filter on the faucet will strain out mud and large 
particles. Such a filter must frequently be unscrewed and 
boiled. If the public supply is reasonably good, faucet 
filters are of very doubtful value. If there is any doubt of 
the quality of the supply, the proper precaution is to boil 
the drinking water for at least five minutes. This must 
always be done in case of an epidemic of typhoid, which 
might be due to the water. The boiling " deadens the 
taste " by depriving the water of air, but this may be re- 
stored by letting the water stand in a clear, cool place or by 
pouring from one clean vessel to another several times. 
Boiling is also good if there is much lime in the water, in the 
condition known as " temporary hardness." Buying spring 
water is a doubtful remedy, unless you have knowledge of 
conditions at the source. Distilled water may be accepted 
as safe if the distiller uses good methods. 



48 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

If drinking water is to stand, cover it. 

The ice supply. — Natural ice is unsafe, for freezing will 
not destroy harmful bacteria nor remove dirt. Artificial 
ice is better, if the manufacturer is honest and the factory 
clean. In either case, do not put ice into the drinking water, 
but cool the water by putting it in bottles on the ice, or in 
a cooler with ice around it. '' Too much trouble," you say? 
Illness is a greater trouble. 

Disposal of Waste 

So important is this matter that the degree of perfection 
reached seems the measure of the real civilization of any 
community. Most cities and small towns keep the '' best " 
streets free of litter and filth ; but look at the back yards 
along our railways, the vacant lots between apartments and 
houses, the river banks in manufacturing towns, the dump 
heaps where the town is filling in and '' making " land, and 
you will see that we have much to learn, and much to teach. 
It is not enough in these days for the housekeeper to see 
that her own premises are tidy. She must work in some 
way with the whole community to see that good methods 
are used in street sweeping, disposal of sewage, food waste, 
and all the rubbish that is thrown in the scrap heap of the 
human family — ashes, tin cans, old iron, old shoes, and 
paper. '^ Out of sight, out of mind " has been the easy motto 
of the past, meaning out of our own sight, but not our 
neighbor's always. Fire, earth, and water are coworkers 
with us if we use them aright. 

The isolated house. — On the farm, or small place of a 
few acres, we can take care of our own waste, without 
trouble to our neighbors. Food scraps are given to animals. 
Everything burnable, like paper and rags, can be disposed 



WATER SUPPLY AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE 49 

of in the stove or by bonfire. A large, cylindrical basket, 
made of a piece of woven wire fencing and standing at a safe 
distance from buildings, will hold this kind of refuse for several 
days, and it can then be burned in the basket, when the wind 
is not strong. Tin cans and unburnable material may be 
buried in a hole dug for the purpose, and kept covered. 
Such things should not be carted away and emptied by the 
roadside. Slops may be carried off in pails on a barrow, 
and poured on a different spot each day. An earth closet 
should be used, with pails that can be taken out and carried 
off, the contents to be burned. Wood ashes are used as a 
soil fertilizer ; coal ashes for filling in. 

If there is water piped into the house, waste is usually 
piped out. In this case the isolated house may have a cess- 
pool, preferably constructed on the " septic tank " principle. 
It should be dug deep, and constructed so that it may be 
self-emptying. It should be cemented, and divided into 
two compartments. The waste passes from one to the 
other, and when completely liquefied, passes out by a system 
of pipes and tiles into some open field where it is taken up 
by vegetation. The old-fashioned cesspool in the back yard 
is a constant menace. 

The village and city. — Here there must be community 
work. The outhouse with a vault and the cesspool must 
be banished, and some system used for the whole. Sewage 
can be piped out into a field at a proper distance, and dis- 
tributed over the surface much as in irrigation, the surplus 
water draining into some brook or river after it has been thus 
thoroughly filtered through the soil. This " sewage farm " 
method has been tried at the Experiment Station on the 
Merrimac River, Massachusetts, with success. The septic 
tank treatment followed by filtration through sand may also 
be used on a fairly large scale. Sewage should never be 



50 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

poured unchanged into a river, on account of other towns 
below. If sewage is poured into salt water, the pipes should 
run far out and reach the deep tide current, and even so the 
sewage should be screened. For disposal of other kinds of 
waste on a large scale there are ample methods, if the tax- 
payers will only believe it is worth while to pay the bills. 
The city may partially pay expenses here by selling usable 
rubbish. 

Within the city house. — Have proper cans to hold waste, 
and obey the city ordinances. In New York City, for in- 
stance, food scraps and paper should be kept separate. 
This is a rule made by the authorities, because paper and 
food scraps are finally disposed of by the city in different 
ways. Whatever the town rules may be, obey them. If 
you find they are inadequate, help to get them improved. 

Plumbing. — This is one of the vital things in the house, 
upon which good health depends. The plumbing system 
brings in water and takes out waste, with water as the 
cleansing and carrying agent. The waste pipes must be of 
iron, tight at all joints, and large enough to carry off all 
material without clogging. They must be placed in posi- 
tions that insure a rapid and steady flow. Noxious gases 
must not be allowed to collect and pass into rooms. Ven- 
tilating pipes, called vent pipes, are connected with the waste 
pipes so that gases pass upward and out above the roof. 
Water is used to prevent the gases from rising into the 
room, and is called a water seal. The water is held in a 
bend in the pipe called a trap. 

1. The trap. — Figure 14 shows a cross section of a trap, 
called the S trap on account of its shape. This is still con- 
sidered the best form of trap, although there are others on 
the market. Notice that it is a perfect trap for holding the 
water; but when a basin is emptying, it allows a rapid 



WATER SUPPLY AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE 51 




passage, and so it does not hold solid particles such as hair 

and lint. Notice that there is an opening at the lowest part 

of the S to be unscrewed with a monkey 

wrench for cleansing the trap once in a 

while. There may be a collection of 

lint, or grease in time, even when the 

traps are well flushed daily. 

Each basin, sink, tub, and closet must 
have its own trap. If two basins are 
connected with one trap, the water may 
sometimes pull out or '' siphon " from 
the trap. 

2. Sewerage system. — Figure 15 
illustrates the main parts of a house ^^«- 14. - Cross section 

/^ ^ _ of an S trap. 

system. (1) is a basin, with (2) its S 
trap ; (3) is a pipe two inches in diameter, (4) is a 
vent pipe for gases ; (5) is the house pipe, four inches 
in diameter, and laid at an angle ; (6) is the large S 
trap between the house and the sewer ; (7) is another 
vent pipe ; and (8) is the city sewer pipe. 

3. Plumbing attachments. — These in- 
clude basins, sinks, bathtubs, laundry tubs, 
water-closets, with the smaller metal attach- 
ments belonging to each. 

For these receptacles a good porcelain or 
vitrified ma- 
terial is by 
all means the 7 



1 





Fig. 15. — Diagram of the main parts of a sewerage system. 



52 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



best, as it is sanitary and lasting. Nickel plate is better than 
brass for the small attachments, as it is easier to keep clean 
than brass. 




Fig. 16. — A well-fitted bathroom, the fixtures sanitary and simple. 

Figure 16 shows a well-fitted bathroom. Notice the 
simplicity of the support of the basin. How easy to keep 
the floor clean beneath. It would be even better to have 
the type of tub that rests on the floor. For general furnish- 
ing of bathroom, see next chapter. 

Figure 17 gives a cross section of a basin. Notice that 
there is no chain for the stopper. The " waste rod " (1) acts 
directly on the stopper. The stopper (2) in basin is operated 
by turning the handle (3). This particular device is said 
to be simpler in construction than any other of this type. 



IVATJ^U SUPPLY AND 'DISPOSAL OF WASTE 53 




Fig. 17. — Cross section of a basin. 



If the faucet is one that turns on and runs steadily, an 
overflow is needed. This overflow is not easy to keep clean. 




Fig. 18. — Cross section of a siphon water-closet. 



54 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

It is better to have the type of faucet that needs a steady 
pressure to keep up the flow. 

Figure 18 shows a cross section of a siphon water-closet. 
The jet of water is concealed from view and passes in from 
the pipe at (1), the water rushes out of (2), the vent for gas 
and odors at (3) is said to be the best. The construction is 
such that the vent is above the top edge of the closet, so 
that any overflow taking place from stoppage in the closet 
is not forced into the vent pipe, and each time the closet is 
operated the vent chamber (4) is flushed, as well as the bowl. 
This closet is also more noiseless than many. 

Care of plumbing. — All basins must be cleansed daily 
with hot and cold water. Once a week wash out the traps 
with a solution of caustic soda. If leaks in pipes are sus- 
pected, pour peppermint oil in the vent pipe of the roof. If 
the odor is detected anywhere in the house, send for the 
plumber. 

EXERCISES 

1. Find out the source of water supply in your own town. Visit 
it if possible. 

2. If a small town or in the country, find out the geological 
structure of the country. There are always government reports 
to be had that will describe this. Decide where a well might be 
safe. 

3. Explain how a mass of threads and lint lying in an S trap with 
one end in the trap and the other lying over the curve of the trap 
would affect the water seal. 

4. Open a trap with a monkey wrench, having a basin below. 
Cleanse it thoroughly and replace the screw. 

5. What principles of physics are illustrated in the action oi 
the water-closet, Figure 18? 



CHAPTER VI 
DECORATION OF THE HOME 

Few people realize the effect that a well-decorated and 
well-furnished home has on the daily life of a family. It 
produces an environment of harmony, of beauty of form, 
line, and color ; and the general atmosphere resulting from 
this harmony is conducive to better living. In the past this 
work has been put largely into the hands of the experienced 
decorator or left to the haphazard working out of those who 
did not know or who were guided by intuition rather than 
principles. The girl of to-day and to-morrow should have 
a fund of information along these lines that will aid her in 
surrounding herself and her family with the colors and 
forms that tend to promote an atmosphere of restfulness in 
daily living. Many people who have not technical artistic 
skill can make home attractive, and this is as much an ex- 
pression of the artistic temperament as the ability to paint 
a beautiful picture or to model a statue. It is very impor- 
tant, for it is helping to make life more beautiful through 
the adaptation of art to everyday things. The desire to 
decorate, to beautify, is inherent in the race, and the most 
primitive peoples give evidence of this in their houses, tools, 
and dress. 

In successful home furnishing, the aesthetic aspects together 
with economy and hygiene should be borne in mind. Too 
many homes are furnished simply for show without relation 
to health or pocketbook. 

Beauty in house decoration depends upon the harmonious 

55 



56 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

relation of parts and of each part to the whole. The aim 
should be to make it as simple as possible, and appropriate, 
in that it is adapted to one's mode of living. William Morris 
said, " To give people pleasure in the things they must per- 
force use ; that is the one great office of decoration." The 
home should be refined and inviting — a place that it is a 
pleasure to enter — where cheer and comfort greet us and 
the atmosphere is one of rest. 

Much of this general atmosphere can be produced through 
the right kind of house decoration. Bright colors and showy 
effects with exciting combinations do not tend to produce 
an atmosphere of repose. The interior should be simple 
and an honest expression of the life within the home. Young 
people starting a home will find it wise to select articles 
with thought toward appropriateness and serviceability. 
This requires a definite plan before purchase is made, for 
it means a consideration of the whole life of the home, 
spiritual as well as material. The problem of those who 
are already established in homes is more difficult, for this 
often necessitates the utilization of present belongings in 
the attempt to produce harmony. Sometimes this will call 
for the disposal of much that is ugly, though valuable. 
The articles about the home should express the individuality 
of its members and should be honest, simple, and true. Is 
the furnishing of use ? Does it please in color, form, and 
decoration? Is it durable? All these questions help one 
to decide whether the furnishings are to be discarded or 
whether they shall remain a part of the daily life. It is not 
good taste to accumulate a quantity of useless articles in 
the home, but rather to select a few things that will add to 
the comfort and well-being of the family. Do not forget 
in selection the suggestion, '' Decorate construction, do 
not construct decoration." 



DECORATION OF THE HOME 57 

Unity. — The first guiding principle then in the selection 
of decorations and furnishings for a home is the thought of 
unity. Some definite scheme should be adopted in planning 
the whole apartment or house. This idea should be kept 
always in mind when the decorations and furnishings are 
selected. In those things that nature clothes, there is unity 
— a freedom from disturbing and unrelated elements. This 
unity we find is due to proper relationship of shapes, lines, 
dark and light, and color. With this idea in mind one would 
never decorate in bright red a room opening into one of 
lavender treatment, or place a set of dark stuffed furniture 
in a country home where only wicker and chintz or light fur- 
nishing would be appropriate. No object should intrude 
itself, and one should be conscious at first only of a delightful 
whole. Decoration is for the purpose of producing this 
harmony, it is not simply for ornament. 

Simplicity in house decoration and furnishing is evidence 
of good taste. It will prefer the things that are appropriate 
and which meet the needs of comfort and daily living. Sim- 
plicity of taste means that conglomerate mixtures of all 
kinds of materials and furnishings will not be tolerated. 
One picture of good print and simple framing will be prefer- 
able to several bright chromos or large family portraits in 
gilt moldings ; one simple vase with a beautiful spray of 
apple blossoms has more beauty than an exhibition of bric- 
a-brac such as many homes exhibit. Use as well as beauty 
if kept in mind will guide. 

Appropriateness. — In planning avoid the selection of 
unusual or pretentious furnishings or decoration. The fur- 
nishings should represent the ideals and the standards of 
living of the family, should be within the income, and should 
be appropriate to the station in life. A Louis XV drawing- 
room would not be an honest representation of a college 



58 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

professor's life, even if he could afford such furnishings. 
Ideals as well as ideas influence selection. Simple wicker fur- 
niture and muslin curtains, if one can afford them, are better 
than cheap imitations of fancy brocaded satin draperies and 
upholstered chairs. The principle of appropriateness must 
be borne in mind in the furnishing of each room. Uncomfort- 
able chairs do not suggest the ease and restfulness of a living 
room or heavy draperies and thick carpets the healthful or 
inviting bedroom. The use of articles often determines 
their appropriateness. " Dust collectors " are seldom useful 
or appropriate, and much time is consumed in dusting 
useless bric-a-brac, furniture with much carving, twisting, 
and ornamentation that is neither beautiful nor suitable. 
One would not expect to find upholstered chairs or velvet 
carpet in a kitchen, and neither should one find inappropriate 
furnishings discarded from other places in the bedrooms 
or living room. 

Decoration must take into consideration also the prin- 
ciples of good line, dark and light, shape and color. These 
principles will be shown in their application to dress (Chap- 
ter XIX) and are as truly applicable to questions of decora- 
tion and furnishing of the home. 

Good " lines." — The home selected may not have good 
form or " lines." If built according to one's plans and ideas, 
it is possible to keep the proportions in proper balance. If 
this is carefully worked out, homes so constructed will not 
need as much decoration, for the pleasing " lines " and pro- 
portions are decoration in themselves. Houses, like people, 
must be so decorated by dress as to bring about the most 
harmonious effect, and to correct the poor lines of inartistic 
construction. Some suggestions will be given under wall 
coverings for changing the effect of fixed lines. There 
should be no jerky angles, but a rhythmic flow of lines one 



DECORATION OF THE HOME 59 

within and into another. The proper arrangement brings 
about design and space relationship, which must be carefully 
considered in choosing wall coverings, draperies, rugs, and 
other furnishings. 

Color. ^ — Many women fail in their schemes for home 
decoration because of a lack of real appreciation of color. 
This is due to the fact that the color sense needs training, 
which is sometimes difficult to attain. Appreciation is often 
inherent and a part of one's being because of early associa- 
tions, travel, and training, which come in life to some, and 
from which others are debarred. Every girl in her high- 
school art classes will have opportunity to study color. 
To think about color in daily living is a good way to study 
it. Notice what nature teaches. Observe the sunsets on 
a clear day, then on a misty one when all is rather gray. 
Notice the wonderful backgrounds of middle values of gray 
and purple, brown and green. See how the bright colors are 
placed in little patches by way of relief and determine the 
relation of these color combinations to the problems of dress 
and home decoration. (See color suggestions under dress. 
Chapter XIX.) 

Color schemes in relation to light must be carefully con- 
sidered. This will be explained under selection of wall 
coverings. Gradation of color is a part of every correct 
scheme in home decoration. The dark values and less in- 
tense colors should always be at the base, consequently 
ceilings are light in value and walls of intermediate value 
and intensity. Very often they flow one into another with- 
out sharp lines of contrast. Contrasting colors or comple- 
mentary colors should be used carefully, as this arrangement 
of decoration tends to make both colors stand out. Suc- 

1 " A Color Notation," A. H. Munsell, is suggested to the teacher for color 
theory. 



60 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

cessful combinations provide for the use of a large amount 
of one color and a small amount of the contrasting color, 
which is always in subordinate relation. In planning color 
schemes, those having one predominant color will be found 
very pleasing for simple interiors. 

With these general principles in relation to furnishing and 
decoration one can begin to consider in more detail the 
problems of decoration. 

After the house is selected, the first problems in decoration 
relate to floors, woodwork, walls, and ceilings. These should 
really be considered together as well as in the relationship 
of one room to another. It is desirable to have an effect 
of unity and harmony. For convenience in study, the walls 
will be discussed first. 

The wall decorations. — Before choosing the particular 
decoration for any wall, there are several problems which 
confront the home maker and which should be considered 
before choice is made. The location of the room, its size, 
shape, exposure, use, — all affect selection if a harmonious 
whole is to be the result. In considering the walls, questions 
of sanitation and protection are as important as decoration. 
The painted wall is most sanitary, for it can be cleansed with 
soap and water and permits of some decoration in the way 
of stenciled borders, etc. Wall papers sometimes decay 
and become infected with germs. They therefore are not 
as sanitary as painted walls. This makes paint especially 
preferable to paper in the case of the bedroom, as well as 
the kitchen, pantry, and bathroom. Walls are often covered 
with burlap, canvas, Japanese matting, muslin, or rough 
plaster, and for decoration these are sometimes painted. 
Paper is the most common wall covering, and many beauti- 
ful effects can be obtained with it. Its use is more general 
because it is as a rule cheaper. Care should be taken to 



DECORATION OF THE HOME 61 

keep it clean, and it should be changed after a certain period 
of use. 

In selecting wall decorations, the question of light is one 
of primary importance and the location of each room should 
be carefully studied. Light enters usually from the sides 
only, and we have not only direct but reflected light from 
■all the wall and ceiling surfaces. This should be consid- 
ered in decoration when the question of too little light 
necessitates a light wall covering, or too much one of darker 
value to absorb the brightness and light. Colors of strong 
chroma and dark value absorb a great deal of light. When 
there are few windows and the interior is gloomy, a bright 
wall covering of cream, yellow, pale green, or other bright 
color value with white woodwork will produce a light effect 
because of the reflection as well as the decoration itself. 
The question of the particular hue, value, and chroma of 
color to be used will depend on the amount of light ad- 
mitted to the room by day as well as its lighting at night. 
On the north side of the house one should have some warm 
color to balance the deficiency of light and warmth from the 
sun. Yellow in various values, or other warm colors, such 
as the so-called reds, terra cotta, tan, golden brown, buff, 
etc., should be used where north light predominates. When 
rooms are located with a southerly exposure and there is 
plenty of sunlight, the cool colors are most effective — the 
light values of green, ^ blue, lavender, tan. Bright yellow 
or reds are not needed in a sunny room, neither are cold 
greens or blues comfortable in one of northerly exposure. 

The color of the woodwork and floor also affects the pre- 
dominant color of wall surface. If the woodwork is painted, 
it can be changed more easily to harmonize with the wall 

1 It should be remembered that green, blue, and lavender papers in a sunny 
room are apt to fade rapidly. 



G2 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

color than can the varnished or stained woodwork of 
modern houses. This harmony of color with woodwork as 
well as the daylight and sunlight of a room should be care- 
fully weighed in choosing color. If furnishings have been 
bought, they too should be kept in mind in the selection of 
color of wall covering for the various rooms. 

The use of the room as well as its exposure should affect 
choice of wall decoration. Bedroom walls should be covered 
simply and quietly. Such rooms are primarily for rest. 
The kitchen walls as well as the bathrooms and pantries are 
best painted green, tan, or buff, a warm or cool hue 
according to location and amount of light. The living room 
walls should be treated with something which will be un- 
obtrusive in color and design, as it is the room where the 
family collects usually for rest at the end of the day. The 
dining room should offer cheer, and certain values of tans, 
blues, and reds,' according to the amount of light, are always 
pleasing. 

The size and shape of the rooms are also of primary impor- 
tance. If the rooms and halls are small and open one into 
another, an effect of unity is produced by deciding on one 
rather light color for all. This effect produces a feeling of 
spaciousness, for light colors make small rooms look large 
as dark ones tend to make large rooms look small. If the 
ceilings are low, stripes will emphasize the height. Borders 
should be omitted in rooms with low ceiling, as they break 
the line between wall and ceiling and detract from the height. 
If the ceilings are high, the effect of the height may be 
broken by carrying the color of ceiling down on the side walls 
or using a border with the picture molding below. This 
horizontal effect detracts from the height. 

The walls should be considered as a background for the 
pictures, furnishings, and life of the home, and must be so 




Fig. 19. — 1. A poor surface pattern. 2. A poor surface pattern. Bad in 
dark and light ; rather good in line. Original too intense. 3. A good 
surface pattern. 




Fig. 20. — A poor striped paper between two good ones. 

63 



64 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

harmonious that they will tend to unite the whole, and 
yet remain the background and confining outer limit. Color 
in wall covering is, therefore, very important in its effect 
on the atmosphere of the home. Red is known to be very 
exciting and to tax the nervous energy of the occupants; 
while strong blues and cold colors, especially in sunless 
rooms, may have a depressing effect. Yellow values add 
to the sunniness and cheer ; and browns, tans, and grays 
have a calming influence. The study of color is very im- 
portant in its many combinations and possibilities. The 
soft colors, that is, those of low chroma and middle value, 
are the most pleasing, for they make good backgrounds 
which harmonize well with the woods of furniture, floors, 
and woodwork, and thus unite the whole. 

Plain papers make the best background for pictures, as 
they throw in relief the subjects of interest. Plain papers 
are more restful than figures, and one does not grow so tired 
of them. They are more apt to show spots or soil and, 
especially in a hallway, though they are pleasing, they are 
not durable. Cartridge papers of good soft colors make 
effective backgrounds, as do burlap, linen, and matting in 
plain color. These may be relieved by a decorative band 
or border near the ceiling, the width of which will depend 
on the height of the room. Borders may be stenciled on 
plain paper, or designs cut from figured paper may be ar- 
ranged to form a border and give a finished appearance. 

There are many excellent inexpensive calcimine tints and 
water color paints which are produced in good shades. They 
can be used on rough or smooth plaster, burlap, muslin, or any 
surface used for walls. Oil paint, though more expensive, is 
always sanitary and pleasing, especially in the dull finish. 

Figured papers are preferred by many, but great care 
is necessary in selection in order to obtain harmonious 



• 





























1 2 3 

Fig. 21. — 1. Good surface pattern. If dark and light contrast were 
stronger, this would be bad. 2. "Good surface pattern — good in dark 
and light and line. 3. Good surface with effect of stripe. 




1 2 3 

Fig. 22. — 1. Conventionalized floral design in two values of green. Good 
floral surface. 2. A poor floral design. Too strong in contrast. 
3. Good floral wall covering ; value relation about right. 
F 65 



66 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

effects. The use, exposure, and furnishing of the room should 
all influence choice (see Fig. 19). 

Striped papers are good in many places (see Fig. 20). 
They accentuate the height of a room and are dignified. 
There should not be great contrast in color between the 
stripes, for this tends to emphasis, and the pronounced dark 
lines will stand out in an unpleasant way. The width of the 
stripe should depend on the size of the room. Broad stripes 
would be out of proportion in a small room, as they would 
tend to lower and narrow the effect. 

There are many excellent patterns in wall paper, and they 
should be chosen with the room in mind. Be sure that the 
principles in relation to pattern are considered, for the shops 
show many that are ugly and distressing. The plain patterns 
are usually the best. Allover patterns, in which the figures 
connect, are more pleasing than those in which spots of 
repetition stand out in relief (see Fig. 21). Figures of 
allover patterns in two or three values of the same hues 
are more agreeable than those of contrasting hues. There 
are many ugly scroll patterns on the market. Beware of 
these. They are particularly bad when carried out in con- 
trasts of color so that one feels bewildered by them on enter- 
ing a room. The wall as a flat surface should not be covered 
with bouquets or flowers which appear waiting to be picked 
(see Fig. 22). The designs should be flat, and good decora- 
tion will represent the floral or fruit designs conventionalized 
and adapted to the flat surface. Avoid glaring contrasts of 
color and design. Large figures are suitable only for large 
rooms. 

Borders and friezes should be used with figured wall cover- 
ing only when the height of a room will permit, and should 
not be used at all unless the border matching the paper is 
good in design. The walls of some rooms may be of proper 



DECORATION OF THE HOME 67 

height to permit of a combination of figured and plain cover- 
ing. This combination is very effective, and is usually so 
arranged that the lower f or f of the space is plain, with the 
figured paper above. This gives the appearance of a wide 
border and in a large room is very effective. 

Ceiling effects should be unobtrusive. The lightest values 
of color scheme should be used there, for it must be remem- 
bered that the ceiling acts also as a reflector of light. Scroll 
effects and gay color are not suitable, but light creams, 
grays, and tans which harmonize with the walls are always 
good taste. 

Picture moldings should be carefully placed, for they form 
a horizontal line around the room and may break the space 
in wrong proportions. They are usually placed at the top 
of the wall covering close to the ceiling or below the border. 
When the ceiling color is carried downward to make a high 
room look low, the molding is put below it, and about on 
a level with the tops of the doors or windows. Avoid over- 
elaborate, highly colored moldings. The simple ones of 
natural wood or color harmonizing with the walls are always 
the best. 

Floors. — The floors of each room should be considered 
in relation to use, furnishings, woodwork, and wall decora- 
tions. These should all harmonize. The floor is the founda- 
tion and a background for decoration, and much of the final 
harmony will depend on its treatment in color. 

It is certainly more hygienic and it requires less work 
to have bare floors with rugs. Rugs may be cleansed 
more easily than carpets and the wood may easily be kept 
free from dust. If the floors are old and the boards not 
too rough and uneven, it is possible to fill the cracks and 
holes with a good filler and then paint and varnish or stain 
and varnish them. The question of the kind of finish will 



68 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

arise, and it will depend on the cost, use of room, etc., 
whether the floor is to be waxed, painted, or varnished. 
Light values of brown are usually good, and harmonize with 
furnishings and at the same time do not show the dust. 
The durability of floor finish should be carefully considered, 
for much labor may be saved by selecting the proper kind. 
The manufacturers of paints and finishing varnish have 
many varieties for all kinds of woods and all conditions of 
floors. Careful consideration of conditions is necessary in 
selecting the finish. Some of these bring out the natural 
beauty of the wood if the floor is a new one. If it is 
impossible to have hard wood, good yellow pine makes 
an excellent floor. 

Hardwood floors are the most beautiful and quite hygienic. 
These can sometimes be laid over old floors if the surfaces 
have been planed. Oak and maple are perhaps the most 
satisfactory. These can be left the natural color except for 
the filler and wax or other finish, or can be changed in color 
by staining. If the color is too light, as it is in some natural 
finishes, the lack of harmony with the walls and woodwork 
may destroy the color scheme. Rugs of carefully selected 
color may then be used to bring about the right balance. 
The finish is important. Good wax gives a beautiful smooth 
surface and lasts a long time. Hardwood floors are expen- 
sive in the beginning because of the filling, staining, var- 
nishing, and waxing, but are so durable that they may be 
kept in order for a long time with very little extra expense, 
while carpets must be often removed and changed to be 
hygienic. Waxed floors may be well preserved by treating 
occasionally with a new coat of wax. This must be well 
rubbed in, which makes the cost greater than some other 
finishes. 

Kitchen floors are often a problem. There are many floor 



DECORATION OF THE HOME 69 

coverings on the market of inlaid rubber, cork, and other 
materials. Some of these are very satisfactory, many are 
expensive. The inlaid linoleums can be bought in good 
colors and geometric designs and are very seviceable. Wood 
is often used for kitchen floors. Maple is very dense and a 
treatment with oil will tend to prevent the wood from 
absorbing grease. 

Linoleum or soft wood painted and varnished makes a good 
bathroom floor when it is not possible to have hard wood. 
Color is again important in order to have an unobtrusive 
background. The linoleum is easily cared for and can be 
laid over any kind of a floor provided the boards are even. 
An uneven warped floor will cause the linoleum to wear. 
Good linoleum costs $1 or more per yard. 

Floors for any part of the house where scrubbing is not 
necessary can be filled, stained, varnished, and waxed, or in 
place of varnish, shellac can be used. 

Woodwork. — Woodwork can be painted, stained, or 
finished with varnish or wax. Color as well as durability 
must be kept in mind. White, gray, or cream is excellent 
when these colors harmonize with color schemes. In Colonial 
decoration white woodwork in harmony with mahogany 
rails is characteristic. 

To secure good results in properly finishing woodwork 
with wax or varnish requires much labor. This, however, 
pays, for it is most durable. It must be rubbed thoroughly 
in order to get a satiny, glossy finish. Varnish when left 
shiny is most inartistic and cheap looking. The woods are 
usually finished to show the grain. They are filled, some- 
times stained, and finally finished with wax or varnish. If 
stained, the color of walls, floors, and furnishings should be 
considered, and the stain should not be obtrusive in color. 

Sometimes soft wood is painted to represent the grain of 



70 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

hard wood. This is not good taste, for it is not honest. Such a 
finish is called " graining," and painted surfaces are made 
to imitate oak, or the grain of other wood surfaces. A 
plain painted surface of suitable color is preferable to this. 

It is not necessary to have hardwood trim in order to get 
pleasing effects. Yellow pine and some of the cheaper woods, 
when stained in gray or brown and well rubbed down, can 
be made to give most artistic results. A little experimenting 
is worth while. 

After the walls, floors, and woodwork of the house have 
been carefully considered in relation to color schemes, finish, 
etc., it remains to place one's belongings or to select new 
articles. Successful furnishing of the rooms depends on the 
harmony between the articles of furnishing ; this may exist 
in most humble interiors and depends upon careful selection 
and orderly arrangement. 

Floor coverings. — A great variety of floor coverings is 
on the market from which choice can be made. 

Carpets of various kinds have been used as floor coverings 
for many years. At best, they are not hygienic unless often 
removed and cleansed, which is seldom practicable. In 
most old houses floors were finished rather roughly, and car- 
pets were used for warmth as well as beauty. When it is 
necessary to use carpets, they should be carefully chosen in 
reference to the size of the room and the color values of the 
walls and woodwork. A plain color is often advisable, and 
can be used with rugs that are not too pronounced in color 
or design. Greens and browns are usually good. A carpet 
with large scroll pattern or bunches of Easter lilies is not 
good taste because obtrusive. It is not a good background 
for the rest of the furnishings. The carpet should be restful, 
the size of the design depending on the size of the room, and 
the colors not too many in number, preferably two values 



DECORATION OF THE HOME 71 

of one hue. It is wise to have the floor colors of darker 
value than the walls and woodwork, but in harmony with 
their value and intensity. This color harmony should also 
be kept in mind in selection of matting or rugs as back- 
ground for furnishing. 

Carpets of Body Brussels, Wilton, velvet, and ingrain are 
the most popular — when carpet is to be used. Japanese 
matting and other fibers are inexpensive if the floor is to be 
entirely covered. In selecting these good color and unob- 
trusive designs are best, and can be used with a few rugs 
to relieve the monotony or with one large rug covering much 
of the central part of a room. Do not forget that a good- 
sized rug makes a room look larger than several small ones. 

There are many varieties of rugs on the market from the 
beautiful durable Oriental to the rag rug woven at the farm 
home or by local weavers. The Oriental rugs are beautiful 
in texture and coloring and are choice possessions. These 
rugs were first used by the tent-dwelling peoples for wall as 
well as floor coverings, and were things of sentiment as well 
as beauty : wedding rugs, dowry rugs, prayer, throne, and 
grave rugs — all woven in symbolic designs with wonderful 
colors of wools and silks of beautiful texture. Much of the 
wool for modern Oriental rugs is still spun by hand, and the 
rugs are woven with much patience and diligence, as each 
little knot is tied to make the pile of the rug. They are 
really mosaics in wool. Rugs from the East are imported 
from many districts and have many names, Turkish, Cau- 
casian, Persian, Turcoman, Indian, in many varieties. 
Oriental rugs should be selected by one who understands 
their value, or the purchase should be made from a reliable 
house. The value depends upon many things : the number 
of knots to the square inch and the length of the ends, the 
beauty of design and color, the quality of the materials used, 



72 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

the dye, and the manner and care with which the weaving 
is done. A study of the various kinds with their character- 
istic designs is most interesting. 

There is great variety in American rugs; those of Body 
Brussels and Wilton are the most serviceable and are sold 
in good colors and patterns. The " Smyrna " rugs are soft 
and reversible, and there are other good wool rugs, many of 
which have patterns in two values of one hue, as border 
design or good simple figures. 

The old-fashioned braided rug and the rag rug are useful 
for certain kinds of furnishings. The old-fashioned patterns 
of " hit and miss " are sometimes distracting, because of 
the way in which the white is introduced, but when woven 
with a plan so that the spacing, line, light, and dark have 
been kept in mind, they are quite pleasing. 

EXERCISES 

1. Mention five general principles to be kept in mind in house 
decoration. Explain how each affects harmony of atmosphere. 

2. What principles affect the selection of wall covering for a 
room? 

3. Explain the relationship of woodwork and floor treatment to 
wall covering. 

4. Bring in samples of good wall papers for a bedroom, living 
and dining rooms of a modest eight-room house. 

5. In all house decoration and furnishing what are the important 
things to remember about color ? 



CHAPTER VII 
FURNISHING OF THE HOME 

Furniture. — There is perhaps no more delightful task in 
home making than the selection of furniture for the new 
home. A few fortunate people are the happy possessors of 
heirlooms of beautiful Colonial mahogany (see Figs. 23, 
24). There is always a place for these in a scheme of house 
decoration because of their beautiful simplicity of line, 
decoration, and finish. They should be treasured and pre- 
served. Those that have been disfigured by generations of 
poor varnish may be restored. The majority of young 
people, however, in furnishing their new homes need some 
guiding principles which will help them to select modern 
furniture wisely. 

It must never be forgotten that furnishings express the 
taste of the individual making the home. They are a part 
of the individual and show his ideals for life and standards 
of taste and beauty. The ethical influence of well-made and 
well-designed furniture is difficult to estimate, and is one of 
the most interesting features of the really successful home. 
It should yield utility and comfort, and furniture, in order 
to be beautiful, should be simple and strong in construction, 
with good lines. It should also be appropriate. With such 
principles in mind there will be fewer gilt chairs selected, 
ornate and insufficient in strength to hold an average person. 

It is better to furnish slowly and to choose one good 
piece at a time than to buy whole '^ sets " with superfluous 
pieces. Most people have too many pieces of furniture in 

73 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 



75 



each room ; a few of real purpose and well placed are more 
pleasing. A wise rule is to choose only those pieces that 
meet the needs of the users. This necessitates a careful 
study of old furniture as well as the new styles and produc- 
tions of the leading manufacturers. It is better to buy one 
durable piece with good lines than three that will soon go 
to pieces and be of no service. Real antiques are very 
expensive, but there are to-day excellent reproductions of the 
furniture of our great grandfathers, and the simplicity of 
line of the Colonial assures us that the style will be a per- 
manent one. We have really no new shapes, but the copies 
of the old English and Colonial times are so well reproduced, 
especially those of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 
that a brief study of those periods should help one to choose 
intelligently. 

Our cabinetmakers to-day owe much to the designs and 
models that originated in England and were copied by the 





Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts. 
Fig. 24. — Colonial table. 



Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts. 

Fig. 24a. — A sideboard of Sheraton 
style. Notice simple lines. 



furniture makers of New England. The influence of four 
firms of English cabinetmakers is strongly felt in the repro- 
ductions of to-day. They were in reality artists : Thomas 
Chippendale, A. Heppelwhite and Company, Thomas 



76 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



Sheraton, James and Robert Adams. These were all 
eighteenth-century designers. The Adams furniture was 
formal, ornate, and costly. The Chippendale showed traces 
of Dutch and Chinese influence, and the ornamentation of 
French style (see Fig. 25a). It was characterized b^^ fine 





Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts. 
Fig. 25. — Chair of Sheraton style. 



Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts. 
Fig. 25a. — Chippendale chair. 



proportions, rather elaborate carving, and the bow form at 
the top of the back of chairs. The claw-and-ball foot is also 
characteristic. The Heppelwhite is characterized by graceful 
lines, and is lighter than the heavy Dutch styles which had 
previously influenced English furniture making. Carving 
and inlay were used in the backs of chairs as well as designs 
of paint or Japanned work. The backs of the chairs were 
oval, heart, or shield shaped (see Fig. 26a). Sheraton 
styles were somewhat similar to Heppelwhite, but the chairs 
were characterized by more rectangular-shaped backs 
(see Fig. 25). 

Other styles were of such periods as Louis XIV and XV, 
Spain under Moorish influence, Holland of the sixteenth cen- 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 



77 



tury, and England under William and Mary as well as the 
Georges. 

In the furnishing of the American home of to-day the 
styles of the early Italian and French are disappearing and 
the reproductions are rather of the more informal types 
from the time of William and Mary to the end of the seven- 
teenth century. The comfort and the beautiful lines of 
these styles are better adapted to our mode of living than 
the elaborate Italian and French designs. 




Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts. 

Fig. 26. — A good modern chair of 
Heppelwhite type. 




Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts, 
Fig. 26a. — Heppelwhite chair. 



" Mission " furniture as well as the Craftsman is a modern 
style. It lacks grace, and is often extremely clumsy, but is 
honest and simple. It is made of oak and will last for genera- 
tions. It is comfortable as well as durable and has a place 
in modern furnishing (see Figs. 27, 28, 29). 

" Cottage " furniture is well adapted to use in summer 
homes or where it is necessary to furnish at moderate ex- 
pense. It is in good style, simply finished, and durable — a 




YiQ 27. A simple arrangement showing use of Craftsman furniture. 

7^ 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 79 

great improvement on the cheap, painted, beflowered cottage 
furniture of the past. It is dignified, easily cared for, and 
less expensive than the Craftsman (see Figs. 30, 31). 




Fig. 28. — Craftsman furniture is simple in line and honest. 

Willow furniture is very attractive, and has its place in 
modern schemes of furnishing. It is comfortable and artistic 
in appearance, and much of it is durable and inexpensive. 
It can be used a long time in the natural color and then 
stained or enameled. In selecting this style the workman- 
ship should be carefully examined for weak places or poor 
materials. Willow furniture can be used with or without 
cushions, and is most serviceable. Very often for expensive 
interiors upholstering of elaborate velvets and other textiles 
is used for willow furniture (see Figs. 32 and 33). 




Fig. 29. — A living room showing the use of Craftsman furniture. 




Courtesy of William Leavens & Co. 
Fig. 30. — " Cottage " furniture. 
80 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 



81 



Bent-wood furniture, serviceable and simple in construc- 
tion, is offered in the shops in variety of design in combina- 




FiG. 31. 



Courtesy of William Leavens & Co. 
" Cottage " furniture. 



tion with cane or without. It finds its place in decoration of 
simple rooms, especially bedrooms. 

The woods used principally in the 
making of Colonial furniture were 
mahogany, rosewood, walnut, cherry, 
and birch. In some furniture we find, 
instead of the solid mahogany, some 
soft wood or occasionally mahogany 
backing veneered with a layer of 
mahogany. This was not sham, but 
utility, for by cutting the veneer to 
run in opposite direction to the un- 
derwood, the maker provided against 
the tendency of the wood to shrink 
in one direction. The period of wal- 

Q 




Courtesy of " The Popular Shop." 

Fig. 32. — Willow chair for 
living or bed room. 



82 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

nut furniture in America was a poor one. The wood was 
subjected to so many groovings, and the furniture orna- 
mented with so many poor designs stuck on the surface, 
that little of the old walnut was beautiful or is of use to-day. 
It was made during a period of debased design in all art. 

Draperies and curtains. — The heavy dust-catching 
draperies, long curtains, and hangings used in many houses 
in the past seem to be giving way to simpler forms, and in 
many American homes to-day a more rational system of 
decoration with curtains and draperies is being followed. 
The sill-length curtains and overhangings and the lighter 
draperies are better adapted to the modest home. 

The draperies add to or detract from the artistic whole. 
As a rule the portiere should be of the same " value "as the 
walls. Plain walls can be relieved by figured portieres, and 
figured walls are made more interesting with plain hangings. 
The principle to bear in mind in choosing should be sim- 
plicity, suitability, and harmony with the other furnishings 
and decorations. Select hangings in keeping also with the 
purpose of the room. A velvet hanging is not appropriate 
in a bedroom. If plain textures are desirable, there are 
many beautiful reps, poplins, casement cloths, soft silks, 
denims, arras, and other material. Velvets of many kinds 
make a rich, plain finishing, and many of the beautiful designs 
of old textiles from the palaces, churches, and museums of 
Europe are being reproduced. These fabrics with brocade 
and pile surface are interesting in dignified rooms where the 
effect desired is to produce the high lights and contrasting 
deep shadows. 

Figured fabrics are many, from the old-fashioned English 
chintzes, cretonnes, and block-printed linens to the more 
expensive silk brocades and wool tapestries. 

Portieres hung straight to escape the floor are the present 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 83 

style, and are more dignified than many overhanging arrange- 
ments. By fining it is possible to use only one set in a door- 
way and have the lining harmonize with the room it faces. 
Good taste in hanging implies that they serve their purpose 
for decoration and use, and this in a harmonious way with 
thought of good lines, color, and design. 

Curtains are used for decorative purpose at windows to 
soften the lines of the wood casings and to make the room 
less stiff. They are placed to prevent those outside from 
looking into a room or to shut out unpleasant sights. 
Windows are for ventilation and light, and for the purpose 
of giving an opportunity to those wishing to look beyond 
the confines of the narrow room ; curtains should not inter- 
fere with these aims. Rooms would be prisons otherwise. 
Curtaining should not obstruct the view unless it is an un- 
sightly one, and they should not obscure it except for the 
purpose of privacy. 

Long, clumsy lace curtains are seldom used to-day, but 
have been replaced by curtains made of many lovely ma- 
terials from the inexpensive madras, scrim, cheesecloth, 
lawn, Swiss, and linen to the more expensive curtains of 
brussels net and linen with inserts of filet and cluny lace. 
Costliness does not always mean that the best has been 
chosen, but in selection the material should be appropriate, 
sensible, and harmonious, and many inexpensive honest ma- 
terials of Swiss and cretonne, when used skillfully and in har- 
mony with surroundings, are more beautiful and artistic than 
imitation velvets, laces, and nets which may have cost 
more at the beginning. Plain curtains of pongee, scrim, or 
simple muslin look well in some rooms when decorated with 
simple stenciled designs. 

There are many simple ways of hanging curtains. Cur- 
tains suspended from a brass rod in the straight-line effect, 



84 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



with or without a valance, are very pleasing. They may 
be caught back simply, to admit light and air! For bath- 
rooms, or other rooms where sash curtains are desirable, they 
may be fastened to the window frame to prevent them from 
blowing out, or they may be placed on a rod at the proper 
height from the sill. 




courtesy of Mtss Heitie B. Meadv. 
Fig. 33. — Willow furniture is well adapted to this simple bedroom. 

Pictures, bric-a-brac, and small furnishings. — Again in 
selection one is confronted by the question of use and reason 
for being. Pictures and bric-a-brac are not of use except 
as they exert a silent influence. Pictures, casts, ornaments 
used to beautify should do this. With so many splendid 
reproductions from famous artists available, in sepia prints, 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 85 

etchings, and photographs, there is no excuse for filling one's 
home with worthless chromes. A few pictures, well chosen, 
are preferable to many. The Japanese place but one work of 
art at a time. In American homes we usually have too 
many pictures. If one is so burdened, it is possible to put 
some aside and change the subjects from time to time. 
Pictures of personal interest, as photographs of friends and 
personal favorites of reproduction, should be placed in the 
bedroom. In the hallways and general rooms subjects 
likely to be of interest to others are suggested. There is a 
wonderful fund from which to make selection : reproductions 
from Millet, Corot, Whistler, Abbey, Sargent, and hundreds 
of others having artistic value, as well as photographs of 
exquisite bits of scenery and dignified old ruins. Family 
portraits, when really artistic, have a place in the living 
room. 

The framing of pictures is important ; mats should be 
carefully chosen ; white ones are, as a rule, too conspicuous 
in places where the furnishing is in brown or green or dark 
values. Soft browns and grays are preferable. The frame 
of a picture should be neat, simple, durable, and inconspicu- 
ous. A frame should not be noticeable, but it should bring 
out the attractiveness of the picture. Gilt frames are re- 
served generally for oil paintings. The hanging of pictures 
requires thought. Avoid having too many pictures on the 
walls ; they collect dust, and the effect is not artistic. The 
cord or wire should be as simple and inconspicuous as pos- 
sible. Vertical wires with two hooks are preferable to 
slanting lines where but one hook is used. The size and 
shape of the picture should be considered in relation to the 
wall space, and an orderly, dignified arrangement made. 
Many pictures are hung too high. A diagonal effect in placing 
pictures is usually displeasing. 



86 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

In choosing bric-a-brac for decoration or use, keep in 
mind the principles of simplicity and harmony. Rhythmic 
lines that flow one into another are the most beautiful. 
Some ornaments may serve a use other than beauty, as 
jardineres of brass or pottery, brass candlesticks, trays, and 
bowls for flowers. A few pieces well chosen are of value, 
but a cluttered shelf or " whatnot " full of bric-a-brac is a 
disturbing element in the repose of any room. Many of 
these things are valuable, but not from the standpoint of the 
home maker who has the principles of simplicity and harmony 
in mind. A few flowers, well arranged, or some growing 
plants add much to the attractiveness of a home, and are 
far more beautiful and graceful than cheap vases, statuary, 
and other useless, dust-collecting atrocities. 

The furnishing of the bedroom. — A bedroom is primarily 
a place for rest. Sometimes it serves also the purpose of 
sitting room or study for individual members of the family. 
If it serves this double purpose, furnishings may be intro- 
duced that one would not put into a room used only for 
sleeping and dressing. There should be a comfortable place 
for reading, for writing, and for sleeping; these are the 
essentials of the combination room. The room should have 
only the most simple furnishings and those which can 
easily be kept clean. The ideal bedroom should have good 
ventilation and should be situated on the sunny side of the 
house. The floor should be of wood with rugs ; light-color 
values are preferable for the walls and woodwork in bed- 
rooms, and the curtains and bed valances, if used, should be 
such as can easily and frequently be laundered. Metal 
beds are the most sanitary. The mattress and springs can 
be kept in good condition with fitted muslin covers. The 
bed should be comfortable. Good springs and mattresses 
are an economy. One third of life is spent in bed, and 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 87 

efficiency depends much on the way one rests ; therefore 
thought should be given to the selection of bed furnishings. 
Good light blankets, sheets of right width, and good 
pillows all add to comfort. A few well-placed pictures are 
restful, but too many are distracting and have no place in 




Courtesy of John Wanamater Cc. 
Fig. 34. — A girl's bedroom. 

a room intended for rest unless they are of personal interest 
to the occupant. Few ornaments are necessary. They add 
to the labor of cleaning the room. Beware of the room 
cluttered with all kinds of hangings, ornaments, and knick- 
knacks which collect dust and possibly disease germs. 

Wicker furniture with muslin and chintz curtains is well 
adapted to the furnishing of some bedrooms (see Figs. 



88 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

33 and 34). Old mahogany pieces or reproductions of them 
are always interesting. Brass beds when of very simple 
design are good, and white metal beds always cleanly and 
attractive. Bedroom furniture in " sets " is not always the 
most pleasing furnishing for the bedroom. Chairs of vary- 
ing styles add interest to a room, and relieve the monotony 
of set pieces. The bedroom should provide a place for the 
storage of clothing. There should be a comfortable chair 
well placed with regard to light for reading by day or night, 
and a study desk or table for writing purposes. " Cottage 
furniture " for bedroom purposes, where expense must be 
considered, is attractive, relieved with a comfortable wicker 
chair or two. 

The bathroom. — The furnishings for this room should 
be as simple as possible. The walls are most sanitary if 
painted, and the addition of tiling as a surbase adds to the 
ease with which they can be kept clean. The aim should be 
the maximum of comfort and cleanliness with the least care. 
The floors can be tiled, painted, or of hard wood, and the 
woodwork painted or varnished. There should be a com- 
fortable rug and a bathmat. Bath tubs resting on their 
own base rather than on feet are more cleanly, as dust can- 
not collect beneath, and rounded corners and edges of the 
room are more sanitary. There should be plenty of rods 
and hooks for towels according to the number using the 
room. It is preferable to have a sunny bathroom. It 
should be well ventilated and the plumbing absolutely with- 
out question. Mirrors and a closet or cabinet are almost 
indispensable, and a small stool adds greatly to comfort. 
A basket or bag for soiled clothing is a necessity (see 
Fig. 16). 

The dining room. — This room should offer cheer and 
comfort, for in it much of the social life of the home takes 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 



89 



place. The wall covering should be carefully chosen in rela- 
tion to light and should not be too dull. Wainscoting is 
effective in some dining rooms. In others the paper is so 
arranged that the lower part of the wall is in plain color 
and a wide border {{ height of wall) is applied above. An 




Courtesy of Miss Hettie R. Meade. 

Fig. 35. — Notice the good lines of the chair and sideboard in this simple 

dining room. 



open fireplace that can be used adds to the cheer. The 
furniture — table, chairs, and side table — should be care- 
fully selected. Large pieces should not be chosen for a 
small dining room, and simple outlines are much more agree- 
able than heavy carving and claw-and-ball feet, which collect 



90 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

dust and are cumbersome (see Fig. 35). A few well- 
placed pictures of general interest are decorative, and plants 
add much to the cozy effect. The floor is most hygienic if 
of wood with a rug that can be removed and cleaned fre- 
quently. One large rug is preferable in a dining room to 
several small ones, and one of not too deep pile is more 
cleanly. Body Brussels and Wilton are serviceable if one 
cannot afford an Oriental rug. A display of dishes, orna- 
ments, and bric-a-brac is not good taste in a dining room. 
Plate rails collect dust. A few articles of table service, 
candelabra, or a dish or two may be attractively placed on 
the side table or sideboard. Dishes and most silver should 
be kept in closets rather than displayed in china closets 
with glass fronts. Few dishes are really good art. The 
sideboard with a long drawer for linen and shallow drawers 
for silver is serviceable. The curtains in a dining room 
should be placed to admit good light. Scrim, net, and simple 
muslins are best for the modest home. When there is an 
interesting view of garden or landscape from the dining 
room, a large window carefully curtained to disclose the view 
adds much to the charm and beauty of the room (see Fig* 
36). 

The living room. — The same general principles of sim- 
plicity, beauty, and comfort should be applied in the fur- 
nishing of the living room. In few modest homes of to-day 
can a room be spared for occasional use as parlor. A living 
room, which answers for sitting room and library, may be 
so planned that one's friends can be entertained there rather 
than in a. stiff parlor (see Fig. 37). In most homes where 
entertaining is of an informal nature the " parlor " of 
former days is no longer known. 

The living room should offer cheer and comfort, and good 
common sense should be used in the selection of furnishings, 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 



91 



useful as well as beautiful (see Fig. 38). It is here that the 
family assembles and friends are entertained, therefore com- 
fort and harmonious furnishings should greet the occupants. 
Soft-colored wall coverings of one or two values or a sim- 
ple pattern, with woodwork to harmonize, are preferable. A 




Courtesy of Story and Triggs, London. 
Fig. 36. — The "Byron " dining room. Georgian furnitiire. 

wood floor with small rugs or one large rug, a fireplace with 
comfortable chairs or davenport near, a couch and pillows 
well placed, a good table for lamp and books, a desk with a 
good light — are the essentials. Bookcases can be arranged 
in this room if there is no separate library (see Fig. 37). 
The furniture should be simple and dignified in outline. 
The old-fashioned '' sets " of upholstered tufted furniture 



92 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



are no longer considered desirable. A few wicker chairs in 
the living room add greatly to the degree of comfort ; they are 
easy to move about, and can be ordered in colors to har- 
monize with the furnishings. Avoid cluttering ; have only 
the essentials of comfort, convenience, and beauty. Curtains 
should be simple and arranged to admit light and air. Plants, 
a few dignified vases, a bowl of brass, some well-chosen 




Courtesy of Sherwln WilHams Co. 

Fig. 37. — A living room which suggests comfort in the arrangement of its 

furnishings. 

prints of good subjects will be found sufficient decoration. 
Arrange the furniture in relation to light with the idea of 
comfort for reading, writing, and the other home activities 
in this much-used room. 

The reception room. — In many houses a small reception 
room is almost a necessity. It is a room for occasional use, 
and when space permits, can be utilized to great advantage. 
It is there that people can be received who are not admitted 
to the intimacies of living room or library. It may con- 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 



93 



veniently serve also as a music room if the young people of 
the house must practice. 

The treatment of this room should be formal. As a whole 
it should be in lighter color value than the living room. It 
is the place where choice pictures should be hung, — some 
oil paintings, when not too heavy, and selected etchings. 




Courtesy of Miss Hettie R. Meade. 

Fig. 38. — This shows the use of the willow swing suitable for a country living 
room. Notice its position before the fire, suggesting comfort and cheer. 



Avoid gilt furniture, statuary, and other frivolous furnish- 
ings without use or beauty. A well-finished floor with a 
few good rugs, dignified chairs and sofa, a palm or other 
plant well placed, and the piano and stool, make it a place 
for formal use. 



94 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

The hall of every home should represent to the visitor 
something of the ideals and standards of taste of the family. 
There should greet the visitor orderliness, cheer, and dignity, 
— an introduction to the life within. Very little furnishing is 
necessary. The essentials are few, a chair where space per- 




Courtesy of Pratt Institute. 
Fig. 39. —a glimpse of a simple dining room from the living room. 

mits, an umbrella stand, a place for hanging a few wraps or 
hats, and a mirror. If space permits, a table is often useful. 
The family wardrobe of coats, rubbers, and gloves should 
not be deposited in the hall space ; a closet at the rear is 
quite necessary, or a few hooks screened. 

The wall and floor covering should be chosen with care. 
It should express cheer and dignity. Unless the hall is very 



FURNISHING OF THE HOME 95 

large, small patterns of wall paper look best, and stripes are 
usually a success unless the stairway is very long and the 
lines accentuate the height. The floor covering should be 
unobtrusive, and of a color that will not show soil or foot- 
prints. Many ugly pieces of hall furniture destroy all f-eel- 
ing of harmony and beauty. A simply framed mirror and 
a good chair are decidedly to be preferred. Curtains of 
muslin, scrim, or silk are serviceable. A golden-colored china 
silk with brown hall furnishings adds light and cheer. 

The kitchen. — The greatest care should be exercised in 
furnishing the kitchen. It is of primary importance that 
everything in it be easily kept clean. There are numerous 
floor coverings, but good linoleum is perhaps most satis- 
factory for the average home. It can be kept clean easily 
and lasts a long time. The selection of wall covering, paint, 
and woodwork should be as carefully made as for the living 
room, and with the same idea of harmony in color and line. 

The kitchen furnishings should be so arranged that energy 
and time are saved. A small room where articles are at 
hand is most convenient. A light arranged near the stove 
and good light near the sink are essential. Furnishings to 
promote the comfort of the worker, a high stool, a sink of 
sufficient height to prevent backache, convenient utensils 
near at hand, and provision for the protection of all articles 
from dust should be carefully considered in furnishing this 
very important room. The kitchen should be carefully 
screened — both at windows and doors. A plant or two 
on the window sill furnishes cheer. A good clock and a 
book shelf for cookbooks are necessary. 



96 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



EXERCISES 

1. What will influence your selection of floor covering for a bed- 
room, living room, dining room ? 

2. Name four English furniture designers whose inhuence has 
affected modern furniture making. Give characteristics of each 
type. Try to find pictures of old or modern chairs of each type. 

3. Bring samples of net, Swisses, or other simple curtain materials. 
Pin on bulletin board in classroom for comparison of price and 
width. What reasons should influence your use of curtains ? 

4. If possible, as a class plan an excursion with your teacher to 
see old furniture and textiles in the museum, or modern furniture 
at some good shop. 

5. What place has willow furniture and chintz in the furnish- 
ing of modern American homes ? 

6. What are your ideas for the use of pictures, plants, and bric- 
a-brac in a home ? 

7. Plan how you would spend (a) $700, (6) $1000 in furnishing 
and decorating a six-room apartment or small house. Give items 
of expense for each room ; also samples of wall covering and cur- 
tains. If possible show pictures of furniture for each room-. This 
might be a class problem and each girl plan a room after approximate 
division of money has been made. 

8. Plan decoration and furnishing of a girl's bedroom just as 
you would like it, keeping in mind the principles that you have 
learned. It might be a combination of bedroom and study. In 
your art class sketch the bedroom and show possible coloring and 
arrangement of furniture. 

9. Describe an ideal living room in a modest home. 
10. Describe an ideal kitchen. 



PART II 

TEXTILES: MATERIALS AND HOW THEY ARE MADE 

CHAPTER VIII 
COTTON 

Reasons for the study of textiles. — Woman is the chief 
purchaser, and upon her rests the responsibiUty in household 
affairs of making each dollar procure full value. Many 
women spend foolishly, and this is due principally to igno- 
rance. Women should have a knowledge of textiles so 
that the materials used in the household for clothing and 
furnishings may be purchased intelligently. This knowl- 
edge means a study of the processes of modern manu- 
facture of materials, their properties, and the laws 
governing the adulterations and fraudulent labeling of 
materials. In the present day of high prices, it is essential 
that girls, who sooner or later assume the responsibilities 
of the home, should make a study of these important 
things. 

Cotton is the most common and the cheapest of the 
important textile fibers used in the manufacture of materials. 
It is a vegetable fiber, and a cotton field of unfolding bolls 
with the soft white cotton fibers within is a lovely sight 
(see Fig. 40). Cotton is the white, downy covering of 
the seeds that are borne in the capsule after the beautiful 
flower has disappeared (see Fig. 41). Nature provided the 
H 97 



98 SHELTER AND CLOTHING' 

seed with its soft covering so that, in the wild statCj 
the wind would catch the fiber and carry the seeds far and 
wide. 

Where grown. — Cotton is a native of many countries. 
Columbus found it growing in the West Indies and Cortez 
in Peru. Theophrastus wrote about cotton in India three 
centuries before Christ. Biblical references mention cotton 
as early as 519 B.C. Herodotus, " the father of History," 
in his book of travels speaks of the cotton plant. There 
are, however, many myths and fables as to its nature and 
origin. It was supposed by some to be a tree in which the 
buds yielded tiny, woolly lambs which stooped and grazed 
about the plant. The principal countries producing it 
to-day are the United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. In 
our own country, about 30,000,000 acres are devoted to 
cultivation of cotton, and about 15,000,000 bales are pro- 
duced annually. Texas leads the states in the production 
of cotton. The fiber depends on the nature of the soil. 
The best grows in sandy, loamy soil which will retain the 
proper amount of moisture as well as heat. It grows best 
between 35° north latitude and 45° south. 

Varieties of cotton. — The value of the cotton fiber de- 
pends upon its quality. Strength, length, and evenness are 
affected by the soil and climatic conditions (see Fig. 42). 
Over one hundred varieties are known by the agriculturist. 
A microscopical examination of the cotton fiber shows that 
a fully developed ripe fiber has the appearance of a piece of 
twisted rubber tubing (see Fig. 87). The twist is of great 
economic importance and aids in spinning as well as pro- 
ducing a more elastic fabric. Its length varies from one half 
to two and one half inches, usually one to one and one half 
inches. Unripe fibers do not swell or twist as much and 
consequently do not accept the dye as readily. They can 



100 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



be easily distinguished if used in colored cotton fabrics. The 
most important species of cotton are the Gossypium her- 
baceum, G, arbor eum, G. hirsutum, G. barbadense, and G. 
peruvianum. Within these five species over one hundred 
varieties are recognized. 

Gossypium herbaceum bears a short fiber or staple, and the 
seeds are covered with a short gray down. The plant grows 






Fig. 41. 



Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Cotton bolls. 



about five feet in height and bears a yellow flower. Many 
varieties of Egyptian and Indian cotton are in this class. 
The cottons called " Nankeen cottons " are made from the 
fiber of this variety. This grows in China and India and 
is yellow in color. 

Gossypium barbadense is a long staple cotton. The plant 
grows to be eight or ten feet in height and bears also a yellow 
blossom (see Fig. 43). The seeds are black and smooth, 
and unlike other varieties. Sea Island cotton is of this 
species and grows chiefly off the coast of Florida and Georgia. 
This species grows best by the sea and yields the finest 



102 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

grade of cotton, since its staple is silky and from one to two 
inches in length. 

Gossypium hirsutum is so called because its leaves, stems, 
branches, and seeds are of a hairy nature. The plant grows to 
be six feet in height. The fiber is short and the seeds covered 
with soft green down. 

Gossypium arboreum grows higher than other cotton, about 
twenty feet at maximum. It is also called religiosum be- 
cause the variety was used in spinning priests' robes in India. 
The fiber is short and the seeds covered with green fuzz. 
The flowers of the plant are brown and purple-red. 

Gossypium peruvianum is considered a native of Peru and 
Brazil, and has all the characteristics of the barhadense. It 
is harsh and rather wiry in fiber and is used for wool adul- 
teration because of this characteristic. 

Cotton culture in the United States. — The United States 
produces three fourths of all cotton used. It was not until 
1621 that it was grown for fiber in this country. It has 
become since then one of the most important crops in the 
world. This is largely due to the wonderful inventions in 
cotton machinery during the last three hundred years. 
Cotton planters prepare their fields in January or February 
and plant in April or May, and the picking begins about the 
middle of August and lasts until December. This period is 
a most anxious one for the farmer. He prefers light showery 
weather for the best development of his crop. Frosts are 
most destructive. There are many enemies which the 
farmer has to fight : the boll weevil, the cotton caterpillar, 
the bollworm, lice, and fungous growths. A large quantity of 
cotton is destroyed annually in this way. The United States 
government has rendered much assistance in studying these 
pests, but much is still to be done. One acre will pro- 
duce a crop of from three to six hundred i)ounds of cotton. 



COTTON 103 

Estimates of the cost per pound of growing cotton vary from 
five to nine cents. In the old days cotton was grown prin- 
cipally by the planters, who had large areas under cultiva- 
tion with armies of slaves. It is now also grown by the 
small farmers who own their farms or rent them and also 
work on shares. Labor is so uncertain that owners of land 
cannot work individually, but must share with a tenant 
who helps in the work. The cotton is gathered by young 
and old. This is a tedious task. The cotton grown in the 
field must be put into marketable shape. It is taken from 
the field to the gin house where it is cleaned and the seed 
removed. Each cotton boll contains from thirty to forty 
seeds, and each tiny fiber is attached at one end to a seed. 
The process of separating seed from the fiber is called gin- 
ning. After it is ginned, the cotton is baled. Let us study 
more in detail about these two processes. 

Cotton ginning. — Most of the cotton of to-day is ginned 
by machinery. In India and China the foot gins and other 
primitive types are still used. The primitive hand types 
are somewhat like a household clothes- wringing machine. 
The rollers separate, but do not clean very well — and 
the process is a slow one. A woman using the '' churka 
gin '' could separate three pounds per day at a wage of five 
cents. In the modern steam ginnery in one hour, on one 
gin, it is possible to gin enough cotton to make a bale of 
five hundred pounds. Eli Whitney invented the saw cotton 
gin, for which a patent was issued by George Washington in 
1794. Water power was soon used in running these saw 
gin mills. The manufacture of cotton cloth could never 
have become a great industry but for this American inven- 
tion. It was needed because of the wonderful improvements 
in spinning and weaving machinery, and this gin made pos- 
sible a large supply of the raw material. The saw gin is 
made of a series of circular saws. The cotton is delivered 



104 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



to the gin box, one side of which is grated. The saws revolve 
through this grid, which is fine enough to permit the fiber 
to be drawn through but not the seed. The seeds are heavy 
and fall, and are used later for various by-products. The 
fiber thus pulled from the seeds by the saws is brushed off 
by a revolving brush and delivered from the machine. 




Courtesy of U. S. Dept. cf Agriculture. 
Fig. 43. — Cotton leaf and flowers. 



Much American cotton is full of knots or " neps," caused 
by the saw gin operating too quickly. This gin can clean 
under average conditions about three hundred pounds per 
hour. Cotton is also ginned by means of the roller gin, 
which is perhaps less destructive. This was the primitive 
method. The best long staple cotton, the Sea Island, is 
ginned on the modern roller gin. The saw gin is better 
adapted to the upland or short staple cotton. One early 
form of roller gin invented by Mr. Bissell of Georgia was 
used as early as 1788. Mr. McCarthy of Alabama invented 
a roller gin in 1840, and with steam power this gin will pro- 
duce about one thousand pounds or two bales per day. The 
gin houses and baling presses were formerly on the planta- 



COTTON 105 

tions, but now the processes of ginning and baling are com- 
pleted at central points. 

Cotton baling. — The cotton is delivered from the gin to 
the baling press. Boxes the shape of the American cotton 
bale are prepared with jute bagging and the cotton delivered 
into them. There are usually two boxes, one of which is 
filled while the other is pressed by means of a screw. This 
bale usually weighs about five hundred pounds, and fifteen 
hundred pounds of seed cotton are used in producing it. 
After being bound with sheet-iron bands it is ready for the 
local market or mill. The size of the American bale is 
about 54'' X 27'' X 16''. 

For shipping at steamboat piers as ocean freight, it is 
necessary to reduce the size, as rates are fixed according to 
space occupied. The machines used to reduce the size of 
the bales are called compressors, and are so powerful that 
the bale can be compressed to seven inches in thickness. 
This means great economy in transportation. Bales are 
shipped also by rail and from local mills by river boats to 
ports. The American system of round bales has been much 
discussed as to relative merit. The cotton from the gin is 
rolled in a lap as one would roll a bandage or a roll of tape 
on a spool. The air is pressed out and this bale is said to 
be waterproof and airproof. It is very easily handled 
and unrolled at the mill, and is in better condition because 
of proper wrapping of cotton cloth which protects and keeps 
it clean. It is called the Bessonette cylindrical bale. 

The Egyptian cotton bale is a trifle longer than the 
American and weighs seven hundred pounds. The Indian 
bales are about four hundred pounds in weight. Cotton is 
shipped from the United States to Liverpool, Bremen, Havre, 
and Genoa, and to other ports in Spain, Japan, and India. 
We import cotton from Egypt principally, but also from 



106 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Peru and from India. The long fiber, imported Egyptian 
cotton is used for fine cotton goods requiring long staple, as 
sewing thread, underwear, cotton hosiery. The business of 
shipping cotton is transacted by great exporting companies. 
Each bale is so marked that it can be traced through each 
step of its journeying. 

Cotton by-products. — Formerly the farmers wasted most 
of the cotton by-products, seed and stalks only being utilized. 
To-day the seed is first delintered and this lint product made 
into wadding. The hulls of the seeds are then removed 
and are used for fertilizer. The green kernels of the seeds 
are pressed and the oils used for various purposes, such as 
salad oil, cooking fats, soaps, candles, according to the refine- 
ment. The remains of the pressed kernel are ground to 
make the cottonseed meal used as food for cattle. It has 
been estimated that one ton of seed will produce 30 pounds 
of lint, 950 pounds of hull, 40 gallons of oil, and 675 pounds of 
meal. 

Cotton yarn manufacture. — The bales, whether round or 
square, eventually reach the mill. There many processes 
are necessary before the yarn is finally spun and ready to be 
used in the weaving of cotton fabrics, the making of cotton 
thread, or for the knitting machines which consume much 
cotton yarn in the manufacture of underwear and hosiery. 
The cotton on arrival at the mill is first weighed. Sometimes 
after the bales are opened several qualities are mixed accord- 
ing to the quality of yarn to be made. The bale breaker 
machine is used for this purpose. The cotton must then be 
cleansed, and this is done in the picker machines by means 
of air currents which beat the cotton against cylinders until 
the dirt, seeds, and stones are removed. The final picker 
machine delivers the cotton cleansed in a lap like the cylin- 
drical bale. The cotton is next treated at carding machines. 



COTTON 



107 



These cleanse still more, and by means of flat cards covered 
with small wire teeth the fibers of the cotton are laid parallel 
(see Fig. 44). The cotton roll or lap is delivered at the 
back of the machine and leaves it at the front, cleansed and 
carded — a gossamer web which is the width of the machine, 
but is reduced to a coarse rope of cotton called a sliver as it 
passes into the cylindrical cans prepared to receive it. Dur- 
ing this process short, broken, and unripe fibers are removed. 




Fig. 44. — Revolving flat card for cotton. Delivery side. 

The cans of cotton slivers are placed next before the 
drawing and doubling machines except when the cotton is 
to be combed as well as carded. This process of combing 
is used when very fine and strong yarn is required. A great 
deal of waste is made by the use of this machine, for only 
the best fibers for good yarn are wanted. The comb is 
made up of fine teeth on rollers, which remove the short 



108 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

fibers and straighten out the long ones. The cotton from 
the carding machine is in the form of sUvers and must be 
prepared for the combing machine. This is done in a shver 
lap machine which prepares the' slivers into laps ten inches 
wide which are ready for the comb. The cotton is delivered 
from the comb in the form of slivers which are delivered in 
cans ready for the drawing and doubling frames or machines. 
The purpose of these machines is to pass a number of slivers 
together between rollers and draw them out so as to equalize 
the strength of all. Several slivers may enter the back of 
the machine together and be delivered in front as one at- 
tenuated stronger sliver. We now have a cleansed cotton 
with fibers lying as nearly parallel as possible and drawn 
out in the shape of a sliver or ropelike form of cotton. In 
order that this soft sliver or rope may not break, it is neces- 
sary to put in some twist as the sliver is drawn out gradually 
until it is a fine yarn. 

The cotton is passed through bobbin and fly frames to 
accomplish this twisting. There are several of these frames, 
the slubber, the intermediate roving frame, the roving 
frame, and the jack roving. All cotton does not pass through 
the full set of frames, but through those only that will ac- 
complish the aim of the manufacturer. The cotton is 
delivered at the back of the machines on spools or bobbins. 
The first frame in this set has large spools with a thick roving 
and the last before spinning a much smaller spool with a 
finer roving. This reduction in size is accomplished by the 
bobbin and fly frames, which draw out the rovings as 
they pass between rollers and put in a twist which makes 
the attenuating possible. The twisted roving on bobbins 
or spools is a very different looking cotton from the soft 
cotton roving delivered from the drawing frames. This 
twisted roving, closely resembling thick yarn, is ready now 



110 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

for the spinning, which draws it out, twists it, and winds 
it on spools. This drawing out of the roving into yarn 
makes it possible to obtain yarn of any degree of fine- 
ness. The spinning frames add the necessary twist to give 
the strength required (see Fig. 45). Modern spinning by 
power machinery is quite different from the spinning ma- 
chinery of our ancestors, but the essential principle is the 
same in both — to obtain a fine twisted yarn which has 
been drawn out from the raw material. 

The history of spinning is most interesting. We know 
that the earliest and most primitive peoples imitated nature 
and wove baskets, blankets, and clothing from the natural 
materials and the fibers which they spun into yarn for weav- 
ing. Spinning in the early days was done by hand. Some 
familiar old pictures show the spinner with a distaff holding 
the raw material, under one arm, and the spindle with the 
drawn out and twisted spun yarn wound upon it, dangling 
from the other hand. We know that Egyptian tombs have 
revealed the fact that spinning was an early art and that 
very fine yarn was spun by hand. " Who can find a virtu- 
ous woman? for her price is far above rubies. She seeketh 
wool and flax and worketh willingly with her hands. She 
layeth her hands to the spindle and her hands hold the 
distaff." In various countries hand spinning was succeeded 
by simple wheel spinning. Some of us remember the large 
wheel of our grandmothers' day for spinning wool and the 
small flax wheel for linen' yarn (see Figs. 46 and 70). 
These wheels were used in Europe as early as the sixteenth 
century. The large wheel was worked by hand power, the 
small by foot power. The motion of the former was inter- 
mittent, for the spinner walked in one direction to draw out 
and twist the yarn and in another to wind it on the bobbin, 
while the flax wheel spinner sat and with foot power drew 



COTTON 111 

out the fiber from the spindle which twisted and also wound 
it on the bobbin. Modern '' ring " spinning is like the flax 
wheel, continuous motion, while the '' mule " spinning frame 
is intermittent, as the rovings are drawn out and twisted by 
one motion and the machine reversed as the yarn is wound 
on the bobbins. Our grandmothers had to card the wool 
with hand cards and make the wool rov- 
ings which were spun on the great wheel. |%^ ^^^^ 
Between the \yheels of the sixteenth ^B,| i/^oi^B 
century and modern spinning there are ' ^^^^^^^^ 
many steps in the evolution of spinning f?^^^^^^ 
machinery, and to-day we owe much to g ^^ 
the inventors of those centuries. '^ Ne- \£5r^^$^\L 
cessity is the mother of invention." In ^^^^^^^^"^^l!?*^ 
1738 the fly shuttle was invented and courtesy of j.Mccutcneon. 

Fig. 46. — Flax wheel. 

weaving was done very rapidly, but the 
yarn for weaving was not available. A machine was needed 
to rotate several spindles at once instead of the one spindle 
of the flax or great wheel. Several inventions followed. 
James Hargreaves of England invented the spinning jenny 
in 1764. Sir Richard Arkwright patented in 1769 a machine 
for spinning with rollers, which he installed in his mill at 
Nottingham, England. The jenny was an intermittent form 
of spinning, while Arkwright's invention was a system of 
rollers like our modern ring spinner. The greatest invention 
in cotton spinning machinery was the mule jenny of Samuel 
Crompton in 1779. This made possible the spinning of very 
fine yarn and the use of many spindles at once. This 
machine was a combination of Arkwright's and Hargreave's, 
and as it was a cross between the two was called a mule. 
After Crompton, Richard Roberts of England contributed an 
important invention, by making the mule spinning machine 
self-acting by use of a device in the mechanism (see Fig. 71). 



112 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Modern spinning machinery is therefore able to accom- 
plish the drawing out, twisting, and winding of yarn, and is 
able to spin many threads at once quickly and evenly. The 
mule spinning frame of to-day produces a softer yarn than 
the ring frame. It is therefore better adapted to the spin- 
ning of wool yarn and for yarn used in knitting machines for 
hosiery. It is a more complicated machine than the ring 
and occupies more floor space. The bobbins containing the 
rovings to be spun are placed at the back of the machine, 
and the spindles on which the threads are to be wound are 
in a traveling carriage which contains rows of them. As 
the machine recedes about five feet the threads, stretched 
between roving bobbins and the spindles in the carriage, are 
drawn out and twisted. As the traveling carriage returns 
to a position near the row of bobbins the twisted yarn is 
wound on the spindles. 

The ring frame is especially adapted to spinning warp and 
coarse yarns. This machine occupies little space and spins 
continuously by means of rollers. The yarn is spun and 
delivered on bobbins — ready for the next process. It has 
been estimated that to-day there are over 150,000,000 of 
cotton spindles in operation in the world, and about twenty- 
five per cent are in the United States. Cotton yarns are 
spun in many sizes. These yarns are used principally for 
warp and woof in weaving, for material made on knitting 
machines, and for thread. 

Cotton thread manufacture. — Cotton thread is made by 
twisting two or more cotton yarns together to form a hard 
twisted strand. The finest zephyr yarns from the spinning 
mule are used for thread making. The very best cotton, 
usually Egyptian or Sea Island, is used in spinning this 
yarn, for the long fiber produces a stronger thread. The first 
step in the process, after the spun yarn is prepared, is to 



COTTON 113 

twist two yarns together. Three of these doubled yarns 
are again twisted to make the six-cord spool thread which 
is commonly used. The size of the thread can be controlled 
by the machines in the twisting process. The twisted thread 
at this stage is wound on bobbins which are taken to a reel- 
ing room, where machines wind the thread into hanks ready 
for dyeing or bleaching. The reeled hanks of unbleached 
thread are first carefully examined for knots and defects 
and then sent to the bleaching room, where they are cleansed 
and then immersed in a solution of calcium hypochlorite, 
'' chloride of lime," for several hours until white. The next 
bath is one of water with some sulphuric acid added to neu- 
tralize the lime. The thread is again washed and boiled 
and the process of bleaching repeated. It is thoroughly 
washed and rinsed and dried in the hydro-extractor. The 
bleached thread is wound again on bobbins, is sometimes 
sized or gassed, and then wound on spools for commercial 
use. The thread to be colored is dyed in the skein, then 
wound and spooled. The finishing, winding, fastening, 
labeling of spools, is all done by machinery and is an inter- 
esting sight. A century or two ago Dutch flax, spun and 
made into thread abroad, was sent to this country for 
sewing of garments. Think of the progress that is repre- 
sented by the six-cord spool of to-day. 

Cotton cloth manufacture. — Cloth is made by interlacing 
the warp or lengthwise threads of the loom with a crosswise 
or woof thread which binds the edges, forming two selvages. 
Weaves may vary according to the way in which the warp 
and woof threads interlace, and even on the hand loom this 
variation can be controlled. Cloth is made to-day prin- 
cipally by power machinery on the power loom. The first 
power loom was invented by the Rev. Dr. Cartwright of 
England in 1774. Weaving is one of the most ancient of 



114 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



arts and originated with the primitive needs of shelter and 
clothing. Biblical and classical history give many proofs 
of the early use of the art. Rushes and other short materials 
were probably used first and suggested the spinning of con- 




Courtesy of U. S. National Museum. 
Fig. 47. — Primitive weaving. 



tinuous woof threads so that selvages might be formed, 
which was impossible with short rushes and other natural 
fibers. The early hand looms of many countries are most 
interesting and may be studied in any museum. The 
Indian looms are especially worthy of study to all Amerir 
cans (see Fig. 47). 

Early looms of all countries have the same characteristics. 
Some device for holding the warp or lengthwise threads in 



COTTON 



115 



place — called the frame of the loom ; some means of throw- 
ing the woof thread after separating or raising certain warp 
threads to make plain or pattern weave ; and some method 
of battening, or pushing firmly together the threads thrown 
across. The motion of dividing the warp threads for plain 
or pattern weaving is called shedding, that of throwing the 




Courtesy of Draper Co 



Fig. 48. — "In days gone by. 



woof across is picking, and the third step, of pushing the woof 
threads together, is the battening of the cloth. The primi- 
tive looms all accomplish these steps in a simple way by 
hand, and the power looms do so to-day much more rapidly 
by means of intricate machinery. A study of the Colonial 
type of loom will give a good idea of primitive methods and 
help one to understand some cf the intricacies of the modern 
loom (see Fig. 48). We find a simple framework of wood, 
holding two rollers, one at the back on which the warD is 



116 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

rolled and the one at the front for holding the roll of finished 
cloth near the weaver's seat. The warp threads, varying in 
number according to the width and fineness of the cloth, 
pass in parallel order from the warp beam at the back 
towards the weaver's seat, passing through a device called 
the heddles, then through the reed which is in the batten, and 
finally they are wound on the cloth roller. The weaver sits 
in front of the loom and weaves with a shuttle containing a 
bobbin on which the woof yarn is wound. This yarn un- 
winds as the weaver carries the shuttle back and forth. 
The weaving is done on the side of the batten towards the 
weaver. The weaver uses her feet also, and the treadles 
which she works are attached to the heddles above. If 
there are two heddles, as in plain weaving, the odd threads 
of the warp, 1, 3, 5, 7, etc., pass through the eyes of one 
heddle and the even threads, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., through the 
second heddle (see Fig. 49). If one treadle is attached to 
the heddle with odd threads, a step on it will lower all alter- 
nate threads so that a division, or shed, is made through 
which the weaver can throw the thread. The other treadle 
attached to the even threads would in turn perform its 
duty. By means of this device for harnessing the threads 
in heddles and attaching heddles to treadles it is possible to 
make many variations of pattern. This device of harness- 
ing accomplishes the motion of shedding, or dividing the 
warp threads, for the picking or passing of the woof. 

To-day, shedding, picking, and battening can all be done 
by machinery on the power loom. Since the first power 
loom of Dr. Cartwright, there have been many improvements ; 
and the complicated Jacquard looms of to-day make possible 
many variations of pattern and the accomplishment of many 
yards of cloth in an hour. Primitive looms contained but 
short lengths of warp as for a rug or blanket, but in the evo- 



COTTON 



117 



lution of the art the rollers were used as in the Colonial type 
to hold longer lengths of warp and so produce more yards of 
cloth. The power loom of to-day with its large warp beam 
can hold rolls of several hundred yards of warp (see Figs. 
50, 51). Yarn which comes from the spinner's mule or ring 
frame is used for both warp and woof. If for the woof, it 




Cowtesy of Cheney Brothers. 
Fig. 49. — Drawing in of threads in preparation for weaving. 

must be wound on the spools which fit in the shuttles. 
There are simple machines for accomplishing this. If for 
warp in the loom, the bobbins of yarn must be prepared for 
the warp beam. This process is called warping and was 
done by our grandmothers on warping bars in a simple way 
and by the modern machinery more easily and quickly 
(see Fig. 57). The yarn for warp is spooled on a machine 



118 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

called a spooler, and then many spools are placed on a rack 
called a skarn or creel. The ends of yarn from the spools 
are gathered together according to the width of cloth re- 
quired — if five hundred wide, then from five hundred spools 
— and are passed through a device which arranges the 
threads in proper order and from which they are wound on a 
cylinder called a beam. This beam fits in the back of the 
loom. Sometimes the warp threads pass through a bath of 
sizing of starch mixture. This is for the purpose of increas- 
ing the strength of the warp and making it smoother. Some- 
times the object is to increase the weight of the cloth. The 
warp is then passed from the beam at the back of loom 
through the heddles. This process of harnessing is still 
done by hand (see Fig. 49). The movements of the 
modern power loom are fascinating as the fly shuttle moves 
back and forth in the picking and the batten automatically 
pushes forward the thrown woof. The division of the 
threads for the shedding is most interesting. 

In the Jacquard harness for shedding is found a device 
which makes possible many variations of pattern. One 
finds placed high above the loom a series of cards. Each 
card represents one throw of the woof. The number in the 
series of cards making the pattern varies according to design. 
The pattern is repeated in the cloth by the cards revolving 
over again. Each warp thread running parallel below on 
the loom has attached to it a thread at right angles (see 
Fig. 58). These upward threads are attached to a set of 
iron rods above the loom in a box near the card series. 
The cards are perforated with holes and revolve against the 
ends of the iron rods. A hole in a card permits an iron 
rod to pass through it. A blank hits the end of the rod, 
knocks it out of place, and consequently lowers the warp 
thread attached at right angles below. The perforations 



COTTON 



119 



in each card are different and are worked out by the de- 
signers, who study the necessary shedding, or raising and 
lowering of warp, in order to accomphsh the varying 
designs (see Fig. 59). This and the perforating of the cards 
requires close application. The Jacquard harness is used 




Fig. 50. 



Courtesy of Draper Co. 
Northrup loom for weaving plain material. 



principally in the manufacture of elaborate silks and linen 
damasks and was invented by Joseph M. Jacquard about 
1792. There are many variations of weave besides plain 
weaving, which is the simple alternation of warp and woof, 
and the Jacquard device for the elaborate pattern or fig- 
ure weaving. Pattern can be produced in plain weaving 



120 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

by means of color, as in stripes, checks, or plaids when the 
color of warp or woof thread is changed. 

Plain twill and fancy twill weaving are produced by har- 
nessing the warp so that the woof threads pass over and 
under the warp in such a way as to make diagonal ridges 
across the cloth. This necessitates a variation on each row 
of over and under so as to make the diagonal lines. Satin 
weave, as in sateen or satin, is produced by the filling or woof 
passing over more threads than under, thus making a smooth 
surface of the woof. This is called a filling face satin. It is 
very easy in this weave to use a cotton warp and a silk filling 
and so produce a satin in which the cotton does not show 
and which is sometimes represented as all silk. A warp face 
satin is made by bringing most of the warp to the face of the 
cloth. Cotton and wool are sometimes so combined as all 
wool, but this weave is used more largely in silk or damask 
rather than in wool. There are other variations in weave 
which are not quite as common as the above, as lappet 
weave, which is a kind of embroidery. This is produced by 
needles on a small sliding machine which embroiders spots 
or other simple figures as dots in swiss or gauze. Turkish 
towels, velveteen, plush, and carpet are produced by the pile 
weave. 

The finishing of cotton materials. — After the cloth is 
woven it is necessary to finish it before it is ready for com- 
mercial use, and various finishes are used to make the cloth 
salable. Before finishing, the cloth is inspected for defects 
and is then bleached if it is to be pure white. Starching is 
often used in finishing. This process weights the cloth and 
gives firmness for a time, but soon wears away in washing. 
The cloth is then pressed or calendered between rollers to 
produce a smooth, glazed surface. It is possible to vary 
this pressing so as to make various watered and moire effects 



COTTON 121 

like silk, which soon wear away. Cotton is also finished to 
look like silk by a process called mercerization, which is pro- 
duced by chemical action. The yarn is dipped in a bath of 
strong caustic soda under tension and finally washed in 
water and dilute acid. This gives a lustrous appearance, 
and the yarn feels silky. It takes dye very readily after 
mercerization and is heavier and stronger. The outer layer 
of the fiber of cotton is affected and swells, thus reflecting 
more light and appearing lustrous. A good quality of long 
staple cotton is used for this purpose. The cost of producing 
mercerized yarn is more than twice that of ordinary cotton 
yarn. The stripes and figures in cotton materials which 
appear lustrous are made of mercerized yarn. It is some- 
times used in the adulteration of silk. 

Cotton can be finished also to resemble linen. The yarn 
is treated to sizing, is twisted more, and in finishing is beaten 
and pressed so the yarn stands out as in linen. Lisle thread, 
of which gloves and hosiery are made, is often supposed to 
be linen. This thread is cotton tAvisted a great deal so that 
the yarn is hard and strong. Cotton can be made to have 
also the appearance of wool. The Peruvian cotton of which 
some hosiery is made closely resembles wool. Chenille and 
velveteen are sometimes mistaken for wool, but are cotton 
woven in a pile and cut so as to show the numerous fuzzy 
ends of the yarn. Chenille curtains are woven of strips of 
this tufted pile cotton. Printed fabrics like calico and 
" silkaline " are printed by passing the plain cloth between 
cylinders on which the design of the pattern desired has been 
cut out. These cylinders take up colors from troughs in 
which they revolve and the impression is made on the cloth. 
The printed cloth is then finished so as to fix the dye and is 
pressed and ready for market. 



122 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



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128 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Other uses of cotton yarns. — The uses of cotton yarns 
are innumerable. The thread industry is one great specialty 
in itself. The knitting industry converts large quantities 
of cocton yarn into hosiery and underwear. Tape, belting, 
braids, binding, shoe and corset laces, and other narrow 
fabrics consume quantities. Lace making both by hand and 
machine requires both yarn and thread. 

Cotton industry in the United States. — The first cotton 
mill in the United States was erected in 1788. As early as 
1831 there were 800 factories in the New England States 
producing cotton fabrics, and 62,000 operatives engaged in 
the industry with a consumption of 75 million of pounds. 
Since then the advance has been rapid, and the development 
of the cotton industry in the Southern States has astonished 
the business world. At the present time about 2000 mil- 
lion pounds are consumed annually. The New England 
States, however, remain the center of the American cotton 
industry, Massachusetts leading, then Rhode Island, New 
Hampshire, and Connecticut. The presence of water power 
in New England explains its early success. This has been 
supplemented by steam with rapid development. In the 
South, Georgia, Alabama, North and South Carolina have 
shown greatest growth in this industry. The center of the 
cotton spinning industry in the South is at Charlotte, N.C. 

EXERCISES 

1. Give reasons why women should make a study of textiles. 

2. In what way did Eli Whitney's gin revolutionize the cotton 
industry ? Describe modern cotton ginning. 

3. Compare the American system of baling with that of other 
countries. 

4. What products are made from the cotton seed ? 

5. Describe the two principal systems of spinning machinery. 

6. How is cotton thread manufactured ? 



130 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

7. Name and describe various methods of producing patterns 
in cloth by weaving. 

8. Describe the working of the colonial type of loom. 

9. Describe four ways in which cotton is finished to resemble 
other materials. 

10. Get samples of common cotton materials. Classify and 
mount in convenient form for reference. This can be an individual 
or class problem. Names, widths, prices of samples obtained should 
be given. 

11. Describe the growth of cotton manufacture in the United 
States. Give causes. 



CHAPTER IX 
FLAX 

Next to cotton the most important vegetable material 
for spinning is flax or linen. It is a bast fiber which is ob- 
tained near the outer surface of the plant stem,^ The inner 
tissues are woody and of no value. 

Where grown. — Flax has been cultivated for at least 
five thousand years in Egypt and Assyria. It was known to 
have been used by the Swiss Lake Dwellers, and is found 
wild in Europe, Northern Africa, and parts of Asia. We are 
told in Genesis, Chapter 42, that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph 
in vestures of fine linen. Russia to-day produces about half 
of the world's supply, but it is largely of inferior grade. 
Ireland and Belgium produce the best quality of fiber. It is 
grown also in Holland, France, Egypt, and Italy, and to some 
extent in the United States. 

Varieties of flax. — The flax plant is classified botanically 
as belonging to the order Linacese. It has numerous varie- 
ties, of which those belonging to the species Linum usitatis- 
simum are the most common. It adapts itself to varying 
climatic and other conditions, and is an annual, with erect 
stalk, which reaches the height of 20 to 40 inches. It has 
narrow lance-shaped leaves which are borne on stems that 
branch at the top, bearing a tiny blue flower. The seed pod 
is five-celled, each cell containing two seeds. They are 

1 A bast fiber, such as ramie or flax, is the fiber from the inner bark of 
exogenous plants. It must be cleaned and free from the gum before it can 
be used. 

131 



132 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

smooth, glossy, and greenish brown in color and of great value 
commercially as the source of linseed oil and linseed (flaxseed) 
meal. A microscopical examination of the fiber shows it to 
be a long, cylindrical tube of uniform thickness. It varies 
in color from pale yellow to gray and greenish tints. It 
averages in length about twenty inches, but is often thirty 
or forty inches. It is almost purely cellulose and shows 
microscopically the bast fibers running longitudinally. 

Flax culture. — The cultivation of flax is one of the most 
ancient industries. In general, flax prospers best when 
grown on a deep, well-cultivated, but not too heavy soil. 
When grown for fiber, it is planted thickly so as to produce 
tall, slender stems free from branches. When grown for seed, 
it is planted more scantily to give opportunity for branching. 
When cultivated for fiber, the crop should be pulled before 
the seeds are quite ripe and while the stalks are brownish 
yellow. Flax exhausts the soil very quickly, the average oc- 
cupancy being eight years in the Courtrai region in Belgium. 
Flax culture in America is expensive because of the hand 
labor required. Flax for fiber is pulled by the root and laid 
on the ground with root ends together and stalks parallel. 
The pulling is done in clear weather and the stalks are 
bound in bundles or stacked in stooks. The next process 
is rippling, or the removal of the seed from the capsules. 
This is usually also a field process and must be done so as 
not to injure the fiber. The simple machine for rippling is a 
kind of comb of iron teeth set in a wooden frame. This is 
placed on a large sheet so as to collect the seeds as they fall. 
After rippling the fiber is arranged in bundles for the retting. 
This is a most important process and is really the rotting 
away of the outer woody surface of the flax stem by means 
of fermentation. Flax is retted by dew and by water. 
When dew retted it is spread on the grass and subjected to 



FLAX 133 

dew, sunshine, air, and rain. It is a slow process but neces- 
sary in order to break up the outer woody surface of the 
stem and free the valuable fiber. When retted by water, 
the bundles of flax are laid closely together in the ponds. 
Sometimes the bundles are placed in open slatted crates 
which are lowered in the water and weighted. The fermen- 
tation soon takes place and in about two weeks the flax is: 
ready to be removed. A soft water free from iron is essen- 
tial. If left too long in the water, the flax is weakened. If 
not long enough, some of the gummy substances are left, 
which interfere with the processes of manufacture. The 
retted flax is then spread to dry in the fields and in about 
two weeks it is ready for the breaking. This process is some- 
times accomplished by hand with simple implements which 
break away the outer woody part of the stem, partly cleans- 
ing the fiber. Small steam or water power scutching mills 
generally perform this operation. The fluted rollers for 
breaking and scutching are arranged to work backwards 
and forwards, and as the flax passes between, the outer sur- 
face breaks away. The flax is then ready to be manufactured 
into yarn. 

Flax by-products. — The flaxseed, or linseed as it is called, 
is very valuable commercially. The brown, elongated seed 
is crushed for the oils. The cake or meal left is a valuable 
food for cattle. Linseed oil is a most valuable drying oil. 
When pressed cold, it is often used for food, especially in 
Russia and Poland. When pressed hot, the color is brown. 
This oil is used in the preparation of oil paints and var- 
nishes. It is also used in making linoleum and is one of 
the principal ingredients in lithographing inks. 

Linen yarn manufacture. — Linen yarn manufacture is 
one of the oldest industries of the world, as well as one of 
the most extensive and widely disseminated. Until com- 



134 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



paratively recent times flax was spun with the spindle, the 
distaff holding the yarn. In the sixteenth century the flax 
wheel succeeded and continued in use until the end of the 
eighteenth century. The inventions of Arkwright, Har- 
greave, and Crompton were especially for cotton yarn, 
and the manufacture of linen yarn suffered from the aggres- 




Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast. 
Fig. 52. — Roughing flax. 

siveness of the new industry. A machine was needed to spin 
flax yarn as quickly as cotton, and rewards were offered from 
time to time in the hope that some inventor would give his 
attention to this need. Linen is not as universally used as 
in our grandmother's times, for cotton has become cheaper 
through use of machinery. Our grandmothers grew, pre- 
pared, spun, and wove the flax for their sheets, clothing, 



FLAX 



135 



and household uses. The small cups on the old spinning 
wheels held water for wet spinning. Dry spinning was not 
considered as fine. 

In modern factory spinning the scutched bundles of flax, 
measuring from twenty to thirty inches in length, are de- 




Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast. 
Fig. 53. — Machine hackling or preparation of the flax for the spread boards. 

livered at the flax mill. The first process is grading and 
labeling ready for use. The flax is then prepared for spin- 
ning by means of the hackle. This process, called roughing, 
when done by hand is accomplished on a board containing 
teeth through which the hackler draws the flax, cleaning 
and combing it (see Fig. 52). The long fiber is called the 
line and the short combed out fibers the tow. When hackled 
by machinery the first step is called roughing. The bundles 



136 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



of flax are fastened in a holder of two iron plates. By a 
motion of these plates up and down the line of flax is sub- 
jected to a combing process from the hackle teeth of the 
machine (see Fig. 53). The tow from the hackle is put 
in a carding machine and is used for coarser purposes. The 
line is then sorted according to quality and is ready for the 




( •ourtesy of York SI. Mills, Belfast. 
Fig. 54. — Spreading flax in preparation for spinning. 

spreading. The spread boards deliver the flax, on a travel- 
ing sheet where it is laid by hand in small bundles, to the 
'' gill," a set of teeth in the machine which again clean it 
and form it into a sliver similar to the cotton sliver for 
spinning. This is the first time the flax is in a continuous 
length and ready to be made into yarn. Care must be 
taken to overlap the bundles on the spread board so that 
the line of flax will be continuous (see Fig. 54). 



FLAX 



137 



The slivers of flax are delivered from the spread boards 
in cans and subjected to processes similar to those in cotton 
manufacture which reduce the size of the sliver. The roving 
frames then put in the twist as in cotton yarn manufacture, 
and the flax is ready for spinning. The flax spinning ma- 
chinery is similar in principle to the ring spinning frame 




Courtes'i of Yort St. Mills, Belfast. 
Fig. 55. — Flax spinning. 



used for cotton (see Fig. 55). The rovings are drawn 
out, twisted, and wound. The rovings pass between rollers 
and in wet spinning through a trough of warm water which 
dissolves some of the gummy substance of the fiber and 
makes possible a finer, smoother, firmer yarn. 

Linen cloth manufacture. — Linen was woven by hand for 
many years after power loom weaving was used for the 



138 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



manufacture of other textile fibers. This was due to the 
hardness and inelasticity of the linen yarn. Even to-day 
much of the fine linen is woven by hand. The factories of 
Aberdeen, Scotland, may be credited with perfecting the 
use of the power looms for linen weaving (see Fig. 56). 




Courtesy of York St. MIMs, Belfast. 



Fig. 56. — Weaving. 



The processes of preparation of the warp (see Fig. 57), the 
reeling, spooling, dressing, beaming, and drawing in or har- 
nessing are the same in essential principles as the processes 
described for cotton weaving in the last chapter. The 
dressing of the warp in preparation for beaming is important 
in linen manufacture. A paste of flour or farina is used for 
this purpose. Linen fabrics as produced on the power 
looms of to-day with the Jacquard harness are wonderful 



FLAX 



139 



in texture, design, and quality (see Fig. 58). The beauty of 
the table damasks is not rivaled even by silk. The French 
designs are the most beautiful, the Scotch and Irish rank 
next (see Fig. 59, for the way in which the patterns are 
prepared) . 

The finishing of linen materials. — Linen is bleached 
sometimes in the yarn or in the thread, but often in the 




Courtesy ofYorJr St. Mills, Belfast. 
Pig. 57. — Warping in preparation for weaving. The creel holds the spools. 



cloth. It is done to-day principally by chemical process, 
but in our grandmother's time the process was a slow one, 
taking weeks and months. It was accomplished by wetting 
the cloth with sour milk and spreading it on the grass to 
bleach. In the process of bleaching, from 20 to 25 per cent 
of the weight, of the linen is lost. Ireland is celebrated for 




Courtesy of Cromplon & Knowles. 
Fig. 58. — Jacquard weaving. Beautiful pattern damasks are woven oc 

this kind of loom. 
140 




• www «»«« ««w*ir««wv 



• • » • 












Courtesy of W. J. Whithall & Co. 
Fig. 59. — Cutting patterns. The cards for the Jacquard loom, which regu- 
late the pattern, are cut on this machine from the designer's drawing. 

141 



142 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

the purity of its linen. Chemicals are sometimes used in 
the early stages, and crofting or grass bleaching perfects the 
process (see Fig. 60). One can ride for miles in Ireland 
and see the linen spread in endless lengths on the grass. 
German unbleached linens are less expensive to buy because 
of less loss in manufacture through bleaching. 




Courtesy of Yort St. Mills, Belfast. 
Fig. 60. — Bleaching green. 

After the bleaching, linen cloth is finished for commerce. 
It is passed through rub boards which wash it (see Fig. 61). 
Then drying, beetling (see Fig. 62), calendering, and pressing 
complete the finish. The beetling of the linen is a beating 
process which makes the fiber stand out. The calendering 
adds glaze and by pressing between rollers gives a smooth 
surface. Cotton is sometimes beetled to give the effect of 
linen, but the glaze is then easily removed by washing. 
Linen fabrics, if at all good, range in price from $.60 to $4 per 
yard. 

Linen materials vary in quality and weight and certain 
countries are noted for their specialization in this manu- 
facture. Certain parts of Scotland are noted for the manu- 



FLAX 



143 



facture of heavy linen, as sail cloth, canvas, sacking. Fine 
linen manufacture is centered in Belfast and the north of 
Ireland. Leeds and Barnsley are the centers of the linen 
trade in England. Damasks are produced principally in 




Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast. 
Fig. 61. — Washing of linen after weaving. 



Belfast and Perth, and dyed linen fabrics are made especially 
in Germany. 

Other uses of linen yarn. — Beside the wide variety of 
fabrics, linen yarn is manufactured into various kinds of 
fine and heavy thread. The trade in linen thread is very 
large, as it is used in the machine manufacture of boots, 
shoes, leather goods, and saddlery. The thread industry is 
centered largely near Belfast in Ireland and in Paterson, 
N.J, Yarn and thread are also manufactured into very 



144 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



fine lace. Cord, twine, and ropes are twisted from fiax 
yarn. 

The linen industry in the United States. — Very little flax 
is grown in the United States for fiber, though considerable 
quantities are raised for seed. In Minnesota and Kansas 
some experiments have been tried. The growth of weeds is 




Fig. 62. 



Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast. 
Beetling, a finishing process of linen. 



one of the chief obstacles to the success of flax culture in the 
United States. It is impossible to get the cheap labor for 
weeding that is possible in foreign countries. Machines are 
needed for pulling and other processes in the culture. The 
Minnesota flax is the best grown, but the materials manu- 
factured from it are very inferior to the foreign-grown varie- 
ties. Flax costs twelve to thirty cents per pound. 



FLAX 



145 



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146 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Other vegetable fibers. — There are many other useful 
vegetable fibers of commerce besides cotton and flax. The 
United States Department of Agriculture issues a bulletin 




Courtesy of V. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Fig. 63. — Flax and other vegetable fibers used for commercial purposes. 
[A, Flax; B, C, Hemp; D, Jute; E, F, G, H, Manila, Sisal, and other hard fibers.] 

in which over one thousand are mentioned. The principal 
ones are Hemp, Jute, and Ramie. Ramie, called also China 
grass, is a shrub growing from five to eight feet when culti- 
vated. It is three times as strong as Russian hemp, and its 



FLAX 147 

filaments may be separated to be almost as fine as silk. It 
is a bast fiber and is only half as heavy as linen. It grows 
in southwestern Asia. China and Japan cultivate much of 
it. It is growing in importance commercially, for it can be 
used to resemble silk in mixing fibers and is often used in 
adulterating wools. It can be woven into fine, beautiful 
fabrics, and will doubtless be used much when cheaper 
methods of cleaning have been found. It is used also for 
fine paper, and the pulp is especially valuable for bank note 
paper. Coir and Pina (see Fig. 63) are also used extensively. 
Hemp is used principally in the manufacture of cord and 
rope. Jute is not quite as strong and is used for sacks, 
bagging, and the finer varieties for mixing with silk, cotton, 
flax, and wool in the manufacture of plushes and carpets. 

EXERCISES 

1. What part of the flax plant produces the linen fiber? Name 
the principal countries where it is grown. 

2. Describe the process of flax retting. 

3. Name the by-products of the flax plant and tell their uses. 

4. Name and describe the finishing processes for linen manufac- 
ture. 

5. Collect samples of the common linen materials. Mount with 
prices, width, and use. Mount also union materials of cotton and 
linen. 



CHAPTER X 
WOOL 

The most important of all animal fibers is wool, which is 
a variety of hair (see Fig. 64). It is the soft, curly coat 
of the sheep and some other animals, like the angora goat, 
camel, and alpaca. Wool varies in fineness, and the coarse 
wools are called hair. The principal difference is that hair 
has a smooth surface and lies straight, and the wool is char- 
acterized by its wavy length, fineness, softness, luster, and 
serrated surface. The serrations can be seen microscopically 
and resemble the overlapping of the scales of the pine cone. 

Where grown. — Sheep have been raised for clothing 
wools from time immemorial. Abel was a keeper of sheep, 
and King David of Israel wrote some of his beautiful psalms 
as he tended the sheep on the hillside. Nero had the walls 
of his palace covered with gorgeous textures of wool. Pliny 
speaks of the use of wool and linen. Homer and Virgil 
describe the processes of wool preparations, and Alexander, 
in early days, on expeditions to India, saw woolen shawls 
of great beauty. The wool industry in Australia, England, 
South America, South Africa, and the United States is very 
extensive. England, Spain, and Germany all give much 
attention to sheep raising. 

Many varieties of sheep furnish wool. The merino sheep 
gives the finest. • The angora goat of Asia Minor provides 
us with mohair, a beautiful, lustrous fiber resembling silk. 
The llama and alpaca wools are found on sheep of Peru and 
Chili. The camel also furnishes a beautiful soft fiber. 

148 



150 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Varieties of wool. — Wool fibers vary in length, strength, 
fineness, softness, luster, and elasticity. Among different 
breeds of sheep the staple (or length of fiber) is very different. 
The average is about seven to eight inches. The fibers also 
vary in the number of serrations to the inch. A micro- 
scopical examination of the wool fiber will reveal the surface 
covering of minute scales. These are very important, for 
upon them depends the felting property of wool, which is its 
chief characteristic. It is the interlocking of these small 
serrations or scales of the fibers as they are mixed that makes 
possible the close texture of cloth and yarn. In fine felting 
wools there are as many as three thousand serrations to an 
inch of wool fiber. The microscope also reveals the porous 
nature of the fiber ; the center or pith can be seen in a trans- 
verse section. This characteristic enables wool to take dye 
readily. 

The length and quality of the wool staple are affected by 
climate, breed, and soil. Where the pasture is rocky and 
soil barren, the wool is generally coarse. The cross breeding 
of sheep produces many qualities. Many varieties find their 
origin in different climatic conditions. In southern Eng- 
land, where it is warmer than in the north, the wool is 
short and fine. If the sheep are removed north, the wool 
grows longer and stronger. Commercially there are three 
varieties of wool: the long, coarse wools, used for carpets 
and knitting because of strength ; the short clothing wools, 
about three or four inches in length ; and the long wools of 
good quality called combing wools — about ten inches in 
length. The Saxony and Silesian wools are very fine in 
quality. The fiber is not long, but has excellent felting 
properties. English wools are of several qualities. The long 
wools are from Lincoln and Leicestershire, the shorter from 
Suffolk and Shropshire. There are several varieties of 



WOOL 151 

Australian wools. A coating of wool as sheared from a 
sheep is called a fleece.^ Fleeces vary in weight both as be- 
tween different breeds and different animals of the same 
breed. 

Wool culture. — The sheep industry of the United States 
is a very important one. The great states of the West, 
Idaho, Wyoming, Oregon, and Montana, support over 35 mil- 
lion sheep. Sheep are generally sheared once a year, usually 
in April or May. The old method with hand shears has been 
succeeded by the use of the machine clippers, for with such 
vast numbers it is necessary to use power. On the large 
ranches these power plants are installed at various places. 
The machine method saves much wool, as it shears closer. 
The fleeces are tied into bundles and then packed in sacks 
which hold about 400 pounds. They are then ready to be 
taken to certain wool shipping centers, where buyers examine 
and purchase large quantities. 

Manufacture of yarn from wool. — When the wool is un- 
packed at the mill it is said to be *' in the grease," that is, the 
fleece is greasy, dirty, and unwashed (see Fig. 65). ^ The 
first process is to divide the fleece into different grades ; this 
is called wool sorting, for wool from the head and upper 
part of the back and sides is finer than that from the belly 
or shins. Usually about six or seven grades are enough to 
separate it for spinning yarns of different qualities. 

Wools cannot be made into yarns until the impurities are 

^ Other wools besides sheared wools come to the mill to be sorted. That 
from pelts of dead sheep is called dead wool. Wool from sheep that have 
been slaughtered is called pulled wool. The pelts after being washed are 
treated with a preparation that loosens the root of wool fiber from the pelt. 

2 The wool is sometimes shipped as washed wool, the sheep having been 
washed on the farm before shearing. Most manufacturers prefer the wool 
in the grease because it is better preserved in shipping, although dirt and 
grease are weighed with the wool. 



152 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



removed. The grease of the wool is called yolk. This is 
the secretion from the skin of the animal and forms an en- 
crusting surface to the fiber with the dirt and sand and pre- 
serves and keeps it soft. Wools from warmest countries 
have most yolk. As much as two thirds of the weight of 
the fleece may be yolk and dirt. 




Courtesy oj M. J. WhUlall. 



Fig. 65. — Wool sorting. 



This grease must be washed from the wool before it can be 
carded, and the washing must be done carefully so as not to 
injure the fiber. Soft soap made from caustic potash is the 
most harmless. Soft water at a low temperature (about 
120° F.) is necessary, as the high temperature harms it 



WOOL 



153 



very much. Strong alkalies destroy wool, and washing to 
remove impurities must be done carefully. The wool in 
factories is washed in a series of tanks, usually five, and the 
wool passed by rollers from one tank to another (see Fig. 
66). The wool in the tanks is swished back and forth by 
means of wooden forks which carry it forward and beat out 




Courtesy of M. J. WhUiali. 

Fig. 66. — Wool washing or scouring. Notice the rakes in the machines which 
move the wool back and forth in scouring. 



the wool. After leaving the washing machine the wool 
is dried in the '' hydro-extractor " and beaten into a fluffy 
mass. About 70 per cent of the moisture is driven off. 
Wool, because of the nature of the fiber, has the power to 
retain a certain amount of moisture, up to 30 per cent of its 



154 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

weight, hence it is said to be hygroscopic. This moisture 
helps to keep the fiber soft. 

After the wool has been washed it is necessary to return 
to it some of the oil which has been removed in order to help 




Courtesy of M. J. WMttall. 



Fig. 67. — Wool carding. Notice the round cylinders revolving around the 
center cylinder. The web is being delivered into the can at the front. 

in the spinning process and make it soft and elastic. Olive 
oil of good quality is used. 

Wool although carefully washed may still contain burrs, 
leaves, and dirt which the sheep have gathered in the pasture. 
These must be removed, because if left in the wool they 
would later cause it to break. Sometimes a machine called 
a burr picker is used in which the dirt is beaten out. More 



WOOL 155 

often a chemical process — carbonizing — for removing the 
vegetable matter is used. The wool is immersed in a weak 
solution of sulphuric acid, then dried at a temperature of 
75° C. Vegetable matter becomes dust and is easily re- 
moved. After being freed from burrs by carbonizing, wool 
is ready for the first spinning process. 

It seldom happens that new pure wool is used exclusively 
for fabrics. When it is, the cost of the material is very high. 
Of such material there would probably not be enough to clothe 
everybody. Wool is therefore blended or mixed before it 
goes to the carding machine to be further cleansed and mixed. 
This blending is done for several reasons. Each manufac- 
turer knows what style, color, and grade of material he 
wishes to produce, and blends his wool accordingly. Cheap- 
ness of quality is one of the principal reasons for blending, 
and if it were not for this, few of us could afford woolen gar- 
ments. The wools to be blended are spread out in thin 
layers, and passed through a machine which pulls the wool 
apart and mixes it. The products that are used in mixing 
to reduce the cost are remanufactured wool and substitutes. 
At this point the manufacturer may mix in cotton or jute if 
he wishes to adulterate or produce a very cheap fabric. 

If, however, he wishes an all wool cheap fabric the sub- 
stitutes used are shoddy, mungo, noils, flocks, and extracts. 
Shoddy is made from old rags of woolen materials, such as 
stockings, flannels, soft underwear — materials which have 
not been felted. The rags are ground, washed, and prepared 
for mixing with the new wool. Mungo is derived from wool 
rags which are of felted materials, such as broadcloth and 
fabrics for men's suitings. Flocks is the waste from the 
finishing machines when cloth is clipped or sheared. Noils 
are the short fibers left from the combing machines, which use 
the long fibers only. Extracts are the wools that are obtained 



156 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



by carbonization from old materials which had been made 
from the union of materials. The manufacturer selects 
from these remanufactured products those best adapted to 
produce the grade of yarn he wishes. There are two kinds of 
yarn made from wool, worsted and woolen, Bind these are quite 
different in character and used for different grades of cloth. 




Courtesy oj m. j . tv nuoaoi. 

Fig. 68. —Wool combing. This machine is used in the manufacture of high 
grade wools. There is much waste. 

Worsted yarns are made from wool that is prepared for 
spinning so that the fibers lie parallel. It is stronger than 
woolen yarn. Long wool is used, and it goes through several 
combing processes so that the short fibers are removed and 
the long, straight ones used. This makes an expensive yarn. 




Fig. 69. — From raw wool to cloth. Showing reduction in size of roving, 

ap it pass'^s from machine to machine. 

157 



158 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Combed worsted yarn of fine quality is used for high grade 
worsted materials and underwear. Woolen yarn is not 
combed, but carded a great deal so that the fibers lie in every 
possible direction. The serrations of the wool fibers are thus 
arranged for felting, when a warm temperature loosens up 
the gelatinous scales of the fiber and they interlock. One 
can readily understand why yarn for underwear should not 
be carded very much. The woolen yarn is woven into 
cloth which is felted, and we have the close, beautiful broad- 
cloths and meltons. 

Wool carding is the first operation in preparation for spin- 
ning (see Fig. 67). The wool carder accomplishes the 
same result as the cotton carding machine. The wool 
carder is composed of a number of small cylinders which re- 
volve around a central one. The wool passes from the 
carder in the form of a gauzy lap the width of the machine, 
mixed and cleansed and delivered as a sliver or rope of wool 
in the cans placed to receive it. If the wool is to be combed, 
the wool slivers are passed through the combing machines 
to be laid parallel. The wool combing machine is very com- 
plicated. Fine wire teeth separate and comb the fiber and 
deliver it in the form of a huge ball of soft, ropelike wool (see 
Fig. 68). These balls are called 'Hops" in the trade. Many 
manufacturers are engaged in making ''tops" for various 
spinning manufacturers making yarns. At this point combed 
wools are put through a set of machines called gill boxes, 
which further straighten and arrange the fibers. Before the 
wool slivers are ready for spinning they must be drawn out 
and doubled, as in the process of cotton yarn manufacture, by 
means of the drawing and roving frames. These machines 
gradually reduce the thickness of the roving and put in some 
twist (see Fig. 69). The woolen or worsted yarn is then 
ready for spinning. Woolen spinning is either intermittent, 



WOOL 



159 



as in mule spinning, or continuous, as in ring spinning. The 
mule is better adapted to the spinning of woolen yarn, and 
the ring and other 
continuous frames to 
worsted (see Figs. 70, 
71, 72). 

Manufacture of 
cloth from wool. — 
The yarn, either 
worsted or woolen, is 
warped for the loom 
warp beam or wound 
on bobbins for the 
woof. Wool, like 
cotton, can be made 

in many counts or numbers — fine or coarse yarns. Fabrics 
raade from wool are numerous in design, from the plain 
homespun weave to the more complicated patterns of double 




Courtesy of Johnson and Bassett. 

Fig. 70. — The old way of spinning on the 
great wheel. 




Courtesy of Johnson and Bassett. 
Fig. 71. — The modern way of spinning on Self-acting Mule. 



cloth weaving. The woolen yarn is more fuzzy than the wor- 
sted, and when used for cloth is woven more loosely ; but in 
finishing it is shrunken to make a smooth, compact surface. 



160 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



The yarns for weaving are harnessed as described under 
cotton manufacture, and materials of various patterns 
woven (see Fig. 73). 

Dyeing. — Most wool is dyed either in the raw state or as 
yarn or cloth. Wool takes the dye readily, which means that 
the surface of the fiber takes a uniform color. Many kinds 




Fig. 72. 



Courtesy of M. J. WhUtall. 
This spinning room shows the ring spinning machine in operation. 



of dye have been used. Our grandmothers were experts in 
the use of vegetables dyes, but to-day the coal tar products 
are available in hundreds of colors. Wool takes dye more 
easily than cotton or linen. The dyeing of cloth is done in 
large vats on rollers ; when dyed in the hank, the yarn is 
lifted on sticks in and out of large tanks containing the dye 



WOOL 161 

(see Fig. 74). Yarn dyeing is better adapted for use in 
weaving certain fabrics (see Fig. 75). 




Courtesy of M. J. WMttaXl. 
Fig. 73. — This shows the Jacquard loom used for weaving rugs and carpets. 
M 



162 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Finishing of Wool Fabrics. — On account of style and the 
rapid changes from year to year manufacturers must finish 
their materials so as to meet the demands of trade. This 
means that the blending, dyeing, kind of weave, finishing, 
must all be carefully considered. There are, of course, 
certain fabrics which are staple goods and always finished 
in the same way, but the fancy weaves must vary yearly. 
Worsted cloths do not require as many finishing processes 
as do the woolen fabrics. The materials after weaving are 
first inspected over rods for imperfections, and a process 
called burling takes place. The examiner cuts the broken 
ends tied by the weaver, marks the places to be mended, 
and then sends them to the mending room. There materials 
are darned and mistakes in weave corrected. This is very 
exact work, requiring skill. The material, rather loosely 
woven, is then ready for the next finishing process oi fulling. 
The aim of this is to produce a smooth, stronger, firmer 
material. 

Worsted materials are fulled or shrunken little; woolen, 
a 'great deal. Material woven seventy-two inches wide is 
often felted to fifty-four inches. This process is done in 
large vats with water and soap, and at a certain warm 
temperature. The serrations of the wool fibers open, inter- 
lock, and as the water gradually cools, remain interlocked. 
In fulling broadcloths and other closely woven materials 
this process is continued for a greater length of time than for 
worsted materials. The physical properties of the wool 
fibers make this change possible. The cloth is dried, and 
then tentered or stretched. After t entering some moisture 
is again added to the cloth before the process of napping. 
Some materials have a decidedly napped surface, as in 
blankets. The cloth is passed between rollers covered with 
teazels. The points rough the surface as the cloth passes 



WOOL 



163 



between the rollers. The cloth is then sometimes sheared. 
This produces " flocks or filling," the fuzz clipped from the 
cloth, which is sometimes used in the process of fulHng, 
where it is introduced as adulterant to produce a firmer 




Courtesy of M. J. Whlttall. 
Fig. 74. — The dyeing of hanks of wool. 



broadcloth. The '^ flocks '' shakes out as the material is 
worn. One sometimes notices in woolen skirts the accumula- 
tion in seams and hems of this soft, woolly substance. After 
shearing, the cloth is ready for the final pressing and is 
marketable or ready for the wholesale dealer. 

Other uses of yarn made from wool. — Woolen or worsted 
yarns are also used in the manufacture of carpets (see Fig. 



164 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



73), rugs, underwear, hosiery (see Fig. 76), blankets, and for 
hand knitting purposes — shawls, afghans, caps, sweaters, 
and innumerable small articles. Woolen and worsted yarns 
are often combined with cotton in the adulteration of 
wool fabrics. Shoddy or worked over wool fabrics are 




Courtesy of M. J. Whittall. 

Fig. 75. — Drying yarn. After the wool has been wound into hanks it is 

dyed and dried. 



usually legitimate additions, but cotton yarns combined with 
wool in the twisting of yarn or combed with it are not legit- 
imate unless sold for what they are. The pictures in this 
chapter show the steps in the making of rugs and carpets 
of good quality. Notice especially the Jacquard carpet 
loom. 



WOOL 



165 



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Wool industry of the United States. — Since the early 
manufacture of wool as a household industry, where all 
processes were done by hand at 
home, there have been rapid 
strides until in 1911 the wool 
product of the United States 
was estimated at 318,547,900 
pounds. From the home as a 
center of manufacture we have 
the development of the factory, 
with 200,000 people engaged in 
woolen and worsted manufac- 
ture. The importations of wool 
in the United States vary; in 
1910, 264 miUion pounds of 
foreign wools were brought in, 
and in 1911, 138 million. 
About two thirds of the cloth- 
ing wool used by American 
manufacturers is raised here. 
Massachusetts has been the 
center of woolen manufacture 
in the United States. The first 
factory was located at Newbury, 
Massachusetts, in 1790. After 

the Civil War there were higher duties on wool fabrics, and 
the number of factories increased rapidly. The consumption 
per capita of wool averaged three pounds before the factory 
era ; now it is six. The price of wool varies with the market 
from $.15 to $.30 per pound. 




Courtesy of H. Brinton Company. 

Fig. 76. — Knitting macliine. 
Underwear and stockings are 
made on similar machines. 



170 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

EXERCISES 

1. Describe the microscopical appearance of wool and give 
characteristics of this fiber. 

2. What is meant by wool mixing ? How does this enable the 
manufacturer to grade the price of wool ? 

3. Why is wool for underwear carded a great deal ? 

4. What is meant by a "pure textile law" ? 

5. How are woolen fabrics adulterated ? Is adulteration ever 
legitimate ? 

6. Collect and mount samples of the common wool materials — 
with width, price, and use. Also some mixtures of cotton and wool. 

7. How important is the wool industry in the United States ? 

8. Test some wool materials for shrinkage and adulteration. 

9. For what other purposes is wool yarn used besides cloth ? 
10. Describe the process of wool carding. 



CHAPTER XI 
SILK 

Silk is the most costly as well as the strongest and most 
beautiful of all the common fibers. This wonderful animal 
fiber of great length is a monument to the industry of the 
tiny insects which produce it. It is the covering in the form 
of a cocoon within which the transformation of the insect 
takes place (see Fig. 77). It is often produced at lengths 
of from one to four thousand feet. It is the secretion, 
formed by the worms at a certain time in their life history, 
which emerges from two tiny orifices at the sides of the head. 
Thes3 tiny filaments form into one as the gelatinous secretion 
hardens in contact with the air and forms a fine elastic fiber 
as the worm throws its head back and forth in spinning. 
In Latin the word is serricum, in Chinese the ancient name 
was seres. 

Where grown. — Silkworms are raised principally in coun- 
tries where labor is not expensive. They require much care 
and attention during their life growth. Japan, China, Italy, 
and Asia Minor produce most of the raw silk of commerce, 
Silk culture in the United States has failed on account of the 
cost of labor. 

Varieties of silk. — There are many varieties of caterpillars 
secreting silk, but the one of greatest value commercially is 
the Bombyx mori, or mulberry silk moth of China, and 
closely allied varieties. They belong to the order Lepidoptera 
and the family of the Bombycidse. There are also certain 
wild moths that are utilized in the silk industry. The most 

171 



172 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

important of those producing wild silk are natives of India 
and China. The silk is inferior, and is known as ^^Tussah" 
silk. It has a use, however, in the manufacture of velvets 
and plushes. The wild moth is very valuable, however, be- 
cause its silk is used for much of the pongee which is made. 

A microscopical examination of the silk of the Bomhyx 
mori shows a somewhat flattened combination of two tiny 
filaments. It is of a horny, gelatinous nature. 

Silk culture originated in China about 3400 B.C. It is 
said that in 2460 b.c. the wife of Emperor Huangti, Si Ling 
Chi, devoted her time to the raising of silkworms and to 
reeling or unwinding of silk from the cocoons. This secret 
was guarded for a long time. Japanese history shows that 
knowledge of the industry reached there through Korea. A 
knowledge of silk culture traveled westward to India and 
Europe. In 910 the Moors imported silk culture into Spain, 
and by the twelfth century it was known in Greece and Italy. 
In the fourteenth century it was common in France. Since 
then silk culture has grown rapidly in importance. 

Silk culture (see Fig. 77). — ^The silk moth Bomhyx mori 
lays her eggs, which are as tiny as a mustard seed. These 
eggs are collected and kept cool until hatching time, when 
they are exposed to heat. The tiny worms hatched from these 
eggs grow rapidly, as they are fed on chopped mulberry 
leaves, and in about a month they reach their full size of 
about three inches in length (see Fig. 78). During that 
period they require constant care in order that lack of food 
and cleanliness may not breed disease. When grown, the 
caterpillar begins to spin the cocoon, which is composed 
of many feet of silk fiber in a parchment-like mass, closely 
held together with the gelatinous fluid (see Fig. 79). This 
cannot be removed without soaking. Cocoons are uniform 
in shape, about one inch and a half in length, and white or 



174 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



yellow in color. The outside is covered with loose, flossy 
filaments. About three weeks after the completion of the 
cocoon, the caterpillar, which has been transformed during 
that time into a moth, is ready to escape. If he escapes, the 
mating with other moths takes place, and the life history is 








Courtesy of Cheney Brothers. 
Fig. 78. — Feeding worms chopped mulberry leaves and clearing litter. 

repeated. If, instead, the cocoon is subjected to great 
heat, the worm moth inside dies, and the cocoons are ready 
commercially to be reeled. When the moth is permitted to 
escape, he works his way out of his prison by moistening one 
end and slowly emerging, thus spoiling the cocoon for reel- 
ing purposes. The gum of the cocoon must be separated 
from the filaments so that it will reel easily. The cocoons 
are placed in hot water, which softens the gum. The ends 



SILK 175 

are then caught from four or five, and wound through a 
guide upon a reel. About five of these double filaments 
make up the thickness of a strand of raw silk. This reeled 
silk is made up into hanks and sold as raw silk by the pound 
and varies in price from $7 to $10 (see Figs. 80 and 




Courtesy of U. S. Depl. of Agriculture. 
Fig. 79. — Cocoons. 

81). Three thousand silkworms are required to spin one 
pound of raw silk. From one to two pounds are necessary 
to make a dress. 

Silk yarn manufacture. — The silk industry in the United 
States is engaged principally in relation to the manufacture 
of silk. The hanks of raw silk are imported in bales weighing 
from 100 to 160 pounds. Hanks weigh several ounces each, 
and they are packed in bundles of five or ten pounds. The 
hanks go first to the throwster. Silk throwing consists of 
soaking the skeins to remove some gum in order to wind the 
silk from the skeins. The skeins of raw silk are placed on 



176 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



reels and unwound on spools. A skein is made up of from 
75 to 200,000 yards of silk. The spools are then placed in 
the machine, which winds (see Fig. 82) two or more together 
and puts in a twist, so that they form one yarn. This is 
called " organzine " and is used for warp on the loom. The 




Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Fig. 80. — Some hanks of reeled silk. 



woof yarn is called '' tram." It is usually not as good a 
quahty of silk, and is only loosely twisted. '' Singles " is 
sometimes used for warp and woof in goods dyed in the piece 
or after weaving. '' Singles " is the thread of raw silk 
wound on spools without much or any twisting. Silk re- 
quires very little preparation, in comparison with wool and 
cotton, as it is fine and continuous, although finer and 
smaller in diameter towards the center of the cocoon. It 
is the most perfect fiber. 

Silk thread manufacture. — Silk is received in hanks by 
the manufacturer of sewing silk. The hanks are soaked in 



SILK 



177 



warm water, dried, and reeled from the swift to bobbins. 
Two or more are doubled as for organzine or tram ; then 
doubled again and twisted in the opposite direction and 




Courtesy ofU. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Fig. 81. — Reeled and waste silk. 



stretched. Embroidery silks and twists are made in a simi- 
lar way, more or less twisting and stretching being done ac- 
cording to the kind of sewing thread desired. Dyeing and 
spooling follow (see Fig. 83). 



N 



178 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



Silk cloth manufacture (see Fig. 84). — ^ Silk yarn is some- 
times woven into cloth before it is dyed, but more often it 
is dyed in the yarn. The preparation of the organzine for 
the warp beam is similar to that described under flax warping. 
The threads on spools are placed on the reel and the warp 




Fig. 82. — Winding room. 



Courtesy of Chenev BTotneni. 
Silk on swifts. 



prepared on the warping frames and transferred to the warp 
beams ready for the back of the loom. The Jacquard harness 
is used a great deal in the manufacture of silks, and all kinds 
of beautiful patterns in satins, silk, brocades, ribbons, and 
velvets can be produced by this wonderful invention (see 
Fig. 85). The shuttle contains the bobbin filled with the 
tram or woof. The shuttle is lined with sealskin to protect 
the filament. Silk cloth is made not only of reeled silk, but 



SILK 



179 



of the silk waste called spun silk. This waste consists of the 
broken threads of manufacture, the cocoons which have 
been pierced by the moth emerging and so are not con- 
tinuous thread, the outside fibers of the unpierced cocoons, 
and the innermost part next to the chrysalis. This waste is 




Courtesy of Chtnty Brothers. 
Fig. 83. — Dyeing. Skein dyeing by machinery. 

boiled to remove gum, is then carded and passed through 
doubling and drawing frames as in cotton spinning, and the 
silk rovings are spun. It is then reeled into skeins for 
weaving yarns or other purposes. Silk ribbons are woven 
on wide looms, but with a number of pieces or widths in 
one loom with a small shuttle for each width. 

Silk dyeing and finishing. — Silk is dyed in the yarn or in 
the piece. Thrown silk is sent to the dyer, who boils out the 



180 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



gum, which is about 25 per cent of the weight of the silk. 
Some manufacturers, in order to make as much profit as pos- 
sible, load the thrown silk before it is dyed. This is done by 
dipping the silk yarn in bichloride of tin or other substances 
which the yarn absorbs until often it weighs from twice 
to four times as much as the boiled-off silk. Whefi exposed 




Courtesy of Cheney Brothers. 
Fig. 84. — Weaving. Primitive hand loom, 

to action of air and light these chemicals rot the silk fiber and 
the filament crumbles away. In order to overcome the loss 
after the degumming of the silk, all kinds of processes have 
been used. Weighting is added not only in the throwing, but 
often also in the dyeing. The filling generally carries more 
weighting than the warp, which must be strong for the warp- 
ing. For dyeing, the coal tar products ('' aniline dyes ") are 




Courtesy of Crompton & Knowles. 
Fig. 85. — Beautiful figured silks and ribbons are woven on the Jacquard loom 



181 



182 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

used principally. Black silks are weighted more than light 
colored. Salts of tin and iron are used for weighting, and for 
the best black silks logwood is the dye. Only inferior silks 
are dyed in the piece. If silk has been woven with the 
gum in it, this must be removed before the fabric is dyed or 
printed. 

Pattern or figure may be produced by weaving, printing, 
stenciling, or embroidering. In weaving, the Jacquard 
harness produces wonderful patterns. Printing, to-day, is 
done by means of cylinders on which the design is engraved. 
Other cylinders supply color to the design, and the necessary 
pattern in color is transferred to the cloth. This is then 
steamed to fix the colors, and finished. Sometimes the warp 
threads are stamped with a figure and then woven with a 
plain woof. The result is an indistinct pattern. Many so- 
called Dresden ribbons are woven in this way. Printing is 
also done in a more primitive way in Japan and China. 
Stencils and wood blocks are used. The effects are often 
very beautiful, but the process is slow. William Morris pro- 
duced some beautiful designs and effects by block printing 
on cotton cloth. There are other finishing processes. Some- 
times the surface is simply smoothed, or pressed. Again it 
is moireed or watered by means of rollers engraved so that 
the moireed effect is left on the silk. It is sometimes singed 
and gassed in the piece or sized with starch or glue to make 
it stiff. There are also machines for calendering or ironing 
it, stretching machines, embossing, and various finishing 
machines for special purposes. Sometimes a piece of silk 
will be treated as many as fifty or more ways after it is 
woven. 



SILK 



183 



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186 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Other uses of silk. — Silk yarn is manufactured into cloth^ 
ribbons, sewing silks, embroidery flosses, and twists. In 
addition it is used for many purposes. The secretion of the 
caterpillars is sometimes removed before they are permitted 
to spin their cocoons, and this is used for snells in fishing 
lines. The silk glands are taken from the dead worms and 
stretched to form tough, sinew-like cords. This costs from 
25 to 30 dollars a pound. The electrician uses a great 
deal of silk for insulating wires and for other purposes, 
the surgeon for various uses, such as the tying of arteries, 
and the dentist, bookbinder, and others have many uses for 
the products of this tiny worm. Much yarn is consumed in 
the manufacture of velvets, plushes, hosiery, gloves, knitting, 
and other silks. 

Other silk fibers. — Artificial silk has been manufactured 
in order that a substitute for silk may be used to reduce 
cost. There are several silk substitutes, some natural and 
others manufactured. Wool or cotton is treated by different 
methods to produce filaments which can be spun like real 
.silk. Artificial silk has much luster, but lacks the elasticity of 
real silk. Spiders in Madagascar produce a valuable fiber, 
and Pinna silk, obtained from the shellfish of Sicily, is used 
there in the manufacture of shawls, gloves, and hosiery. 
There are also some seed coverings that have very fine 
hairlike fibers. The kapok plant furnishes most of this silk 
cotton. 

The silk industry in the United States. — America leads 
in the manufacture of silks and in the consumption of raw 
products; France follows. The imports of raw silk in 1910 
were 22,000,000 pounds. The larger part of the silk fabrics 
and thread used here, about 85 per cent, are manufactured in 
this country. Since 1850 the manufacture has increased 
rapidly. The silk exhibit of the Centennial Exhibition of 



SILK 187 

1876 attracted world-wide interest. The states engaged 
principally in silk manufacture are New Jersey, New York, 
Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. The development of this 
manufacture, owing to demand at home and high protective 
tariff, has been enormous. 

Very little silk has ever been grown in America. As early 
as 1624 in Virginia certain skilled Frenchmen tried to start 
the raising of silkworms. Since then many experiments 
have been tried and have failed, principally because of the 
cost of labor. In 1747 the governor of Connecticut ap- 
peared in stockings and coat, the silk for which was produced 
on his own place. 

EXERCISES 

1. Describe the work of the silkworm in producing the fiber. 
What is the composition of silk fiber ? 

2. Name the principal countries producing silk and describe its 
culture. 

3. Describe the process of silk throwing. 

4. What are some of the possibilities for adulteration during the 
process of silk dyeing ? 

5. Name ten of the most common silk materials and give prices 
and widths. Bring samples to class. 



CHAPTER XII 
COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 

A STUDY of the characteristics, appearance, and possible 
adulteration of the principal fibers is necessary in order that 
wise selection of fabrics may be made. Women so often de- 
mand quantity where it would often be wiser to think of 
quality. The manufacturer consequently caters to the con- 
sumer, and finishes his fabrics so as to imitate the more 
luxurious materials. These processes through which the 
fabrics pass are very disastrous in their effect on the fibers, 
and while they produce low-price goods it is often more than 
useless to purchase them. 

Microscopical and chemical differences. — Wool when 
examined under the microscope is characterized by its highly 
serrated surface, which easily distinguishes it from other 
fibers. In some fine wools there are as many as 2800 serrations 
to the inch. Microscopical examination makes it possible 
to distinguish between wools of high grade and the remade 
wools, such as shoddy or mungo. The latter often accept 
the dyes irregularly when redyed — and the serrations are 
more uneven because of the treatment in the preparation of 
shoddy. An examination without a microscope shows the 
wool fiber to be a kinky, wiry fiber which stands out and curls. 
The wool fiber is, however, covered with a grease, the yolk or 
wool fat slightly permeates the fiber and makes it soft to 
handle. This is a natural protection rather than a part of 
the fiber substance. I'epid water removes the yolk, which is 
composed principally of potash salts. The fiber itself is a 

188 



COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 189 



nitrogenous substance belonging 
proteins (see Fig. 86). 

Cotton when seen mi- 
croscopically differs ma- 
terially from wool. In- 
stead of the serrated 
kinky fiber one sees rib- 
bon-like tubular fibers 
with more or less twist. 
The number of twists 
varies. Some good cotton 
fibers have very few. 
Unripe and half-ripe fibers 
appear without twist, and 
these are the ones which 
in dyed fabrics are very perceptible 
the dye well. The twist aids in 



to the general group of 




Fig. 




Fig. 87. — Cotton fibers magnified. 

affects the twisted wall, making it 
(see Fig. 87). 



86. —Wool fibers magnified. 

because they do not take 
the spinning. As many 
as 300 twists have been 
counted on a single fila- 
ment. To the naked eye 
cotton fibers appear fluffy 
and dull white. When 
woven, the threads are 
regular and uniform. 
Chemically the cotton 
fiber differs from wool in 
being almost pure cellu- 
lose, (CeHioOs)^, in its 
fully ripe condition. 
When subjected to mer- 
cerization, the caustic soda 
a smooth-walled cylinder 



190 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 




Fig, 88. 



Silk fibers from the cocoon examined microscopically ap- 
pear without any charac- 
teristic markings. They 
have the appearance of a 
somewhat flattened com- 
bination of two filaments 
of noticeable length and 
continuity. If mercer- 
ized cotton is used with 
silk, the microscope re- 
veals it by an occasional 
twist in the cotton. With- 
out the glass, silk appears 
fine, long, uniform, and 
Silk fibers magnified. glistening. The fibers fly 

and cling to the fingers. Chemically, silk fiber is composed 
of a center or core of fibroin, with a covering of silk albumen 
or sericin and a little waxy 
coloring matter. Fibroin 
is like horn or hair, ex- 
cept for the sulphur, the 
composition being carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and 
oxygen (see Fig. 88). 

Flax or linen fiber, when 
spun, appears to the naked 
eye as glistening with oc- 
casional irregularities in 
the yarn. Microscopi- 
cally the fibers are very 
like silk, rodlike in appear- ^'''- ^^' ~ ^^^^ ^^^'^ magnified, 

ance, but with occasional node markings It also appears 
more woody and rough. A chemical analysis of the flax 




COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 191 

fiber shows it to be principally cellulose, (CsHioOs)/!, asso- 
ciated with certain intercellular matter and pectin bodies 
(see Fig. 89). 

Varying characteristics and properties. — Wool is perhaps 
the most important of all the fibers, because of the extent to 
which we depend upon it for warmth. It is a poor conductor 
of heat, and the spaces between the warp and woof of the 
cloth, which are filled with air, do not conduct the body heat 
rapidly. Wool feels warm because loosely woven, and be- 
cause of this non-conducting property. The hygroscopic 
capacity of wool is from 12 to 17 per cent, and it often holds 
as much as 50 per cent moisture in damp air. It absorbs 
slowly and evaporates in the same way. A garment of wool 
when dry, next to the skin, feels warm, when wet, the moisture 
is not felt unless there is a great deal of it. Wool feels soft, 
springy, and elastic to the touch. Wool is used a great deal 
for underwear. It is excellent for young children, delicate 
or old people, as the body heat is not conducted rapidly and 
the slow evaporation of the moisture prevents rapid cooling of 
the body. There are, however, drawbacks in the use of wool 
for underwear which are discussed in the chapter on hygiene 
of clothing. It is not easily cleansed because of its felting 
properties. Cotton and linen are cooler because they conduct 
the body heat more rapidly. When loosely woven, the still 
air between spaces acts as a non-conductor. Good wool is 
expensive, and the best combed wool is used for underwear. 
Cotton as a vegetable fiber is by contrast hard and lifeless, 
not so yielding or elastic as wool. It absorbs moisture rather 
slowly. It feels warm to the touch when dry, and -even when 
moist does not feel so cool as does linen. It has not as great 
tensile strength as other fibers. 

Cotton burns very rapidly with light yellow flashes, with 
almost an explosion, and with an odor like burning wood. 



192 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

The residue is almost imperceptible, a fine, ashy powder. 
Wool chars and burns slowly with a flickering flame which 
goes out easily and leaves an odor of hair, and a residue. 
Consequently it is the best fabric to use as an extinguisher. 
Wool is the third in tensile strength and is a good generator 
of electricity although the poorest conductor of electricity. 
When cotton and wool mixtures are burned, the line of cotton 
may be followed easily as it burns, leaving the wool. Cotton 
washes more easily than wool and does not absorb the im- 
purities of the body when worn next to the skin, but it resists 
dust less than wool. A woolen dress will remain clean longer 
than a cotton one. Cotton is very absorbent when the outer 
waxy coating has been removed, and is of great value for 
surgical uses. Outing flannel, which is cotton, is rather dan- 
gerous for garments, because so easily inflammable. This is 
because of the surface treatment of the fiber, which makes 
it like guncotton. A modern process for the treatment of 
outing flannel has overcome this objection. 

Silk fiber has the greatest tensile strength and is the most 
elastic fiber. It is said that it is as strong as an iron wire 
of the same size. It feels soft and smooth. Silk absorbs 
moisture rapidly and throws it off readily. It is very durable 
when not adulterated and is warm and light. It is a good 
non-conductor of electricity, and is therefore used for in- 
sulating purposes. It has a great avidity for moisture and will 
absorb 30 per cent of its weight without the fact being per- 
ceptible. Silk buyers require that silk shall be tested for 
moisture. In large manufacturing centers, special houses, 
called silk" conditioning houses, do the work. The aim is to 
determine the amount of moisture the buyer is purchasing. 
The apparatus for drying is called a desiccator. Because of 
this avidity for moisture, silk accepts dye and weighting 
readily. When silk burns there is a strong odor of hair, 



COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 193 

but it is not as disagreeable as wool. It burns with a flicker- 
ing bluish flame and leaves a crisp ash. Silk feels cool to 
wear when dry, and when wet it is very cold in contact with 
the skin. Good silk has the striking physical property of 
high luster. This is noticeable after the silk gum has been 
removed by scouring. Extreme weighting of silk destroys 
this beauty. Silk also has the property termed " scroop." 
This is the rustle of silken fabrics that one sometimes hears 
or the crackling sound when it is squeezed or pressed. 

Linen is often called the fiber of the aristocracy ; it is costly 
because of the labor involved in its manufacture. It is a 
very strong fiber and when carefully handled in manufacture 
will last years, as is evidenced by the remains of our great 
grandmothers' household linens. It absorbs moisture very 
readily, so we know that linen dish towels are better than 
cotton, and it also dries very rapidly. Linen, because of its 
vegetable composition, when burned smells like wood and 
leaves a slight ashy residue. It burns almost as quickly as 
cotton, and with a bright, flashy flame. Linen feels silky, 
stiff, slippery, and rigid, and is cool and heavy in weight. 
It is more unyielding and less elastic than any of the other 
leading fibers. Linen is a better conductor of heat than 
cotton. It is the coolest fabric to wear when dry, and when 
wet, in contact with the skin, is remarkably cool. During the 
bleaching process linen may lose 20 per cent of its weight. 
Linen is the most cleanly fiber, because it is longer and does 
not fuzz up as cotton in the spinning. For this reason the 
woven surface is smooth and stays clean longer. It does not 
retain the dye as easily as cotton, due to its structure. Flax 
fiber is stronger than cotton, unless over-retted, when it is 
brittle and weak. The hygroscopic power of linen is about 
the same as in cotton. 



194 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

METHODS OF ADULTERATION OF OUR COMMON 
MATERIALS AND WAYS OF TESTING THEM 

The indifference of the buying public has made it possible 
for manufacturers to adulterate the necessary materials of 
everyday use and so increase the cost of everyday living. 
Our food and drug materials are now labeled and legislative 
measures control this labeling. There is corresponding need 
to-day of a pure textile law that will make necessary the 
branding of goods in such a way that fabrics will not be sold 
as all linen when they are half cotton, or as all silk when half 
weighting. Substitution of cheaper for more expensive 
fibers will probably go on and a certain kind is legitimate 
if the goods are so labeled that the purchaser knows what 
he is buying. There are many simple tests by which it is 
possible to estimate the composition of materials, and these 
should be known to every girl, in order that she may protect 
herself until legislative measures bring some force to bear 
upon the proper labeling of fabrics. Many interesting and 
surprising experiments can be made in the chemical laboratory 
that will make one more thoughtful in the purchasing of 
materials. There are many ways in which fabrics are adul- 
terated. It is necessary to know something about the 
possibilities before applying tests for identifications. Some 
of the methods of adulteration hav9 been indicated in the 
study of processes of manufacture. 

Adulterations by weighting. — This means the substitu- 
tion of something for the actual material. In cotton and 
linen fabrics, one method of weightmg is the adding of much 
sizing. This can be removed, but the material after wash- 
ing will be found to be a much more open mesh or weave. 
Many kinds of gums, glues, clays, and starches are used 
for this filling. Light silk is weighted with sugar and the 



COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 195 

darker ones with metallic salts and dyes. This is because 
of the great hygroscopic property of silk, which enables 
it to absorb a great deal of moisture without apparently 
changing its quality. Dye and salts are cheaper than pure 
silk, so loading is practiced. Silk loses 30 per cent of its 
weight in the gum, and this is often replaced together with 
as much as 200 per cent of other matter. We rarely find 
to-day the pure silk fabric that our grandmothers used, a 
fabric which was expensive but which lasted even when stored 
away for years. This is because the public demands cheap 
silk and the manufacturer cannot produce it without adul- 
teration when the cost of the raw fiber is so high. 

Adulteration by combination with other fibers. — This is 
a common practice, and one often buys ''all wool" which is 
half cotton, or " pure linen " which is a union of cotton and 
linen, or " pure silk " adulterated with artificial silk or mer- 
cerized cotton. 

Adulterations due to use of waste or made over material. — 
In studying the process of wool manufacture we learned that 
there is not enough wool produced to keep everybody supplied, 
and a garment of all new wool would be very expensive. 
The practice of using shoddy, mungo, or extracts is legitimate, 
but one should not pay the price of a new wool or half new 
wool fabric when the composition is largely shoddy. There 
should be some legislation which would make labeling a re- 
quirement so that the purchaser may know what per cent 
of new wool she is really buying. Silks are sometimes sold 
as reeled silks when the spun silk from the waste cocoons has 
been used as filling or woof. 

Adulterations due to methods of finishing. — In our study 
of cotton and linen manufacture we learned the uses of 
calendering. This pressing is sometimes used deceptively 
to give luster to the surface. Ordinary cotton is made to 



196 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

appear silky or mercerized. Linen is beetled in finishing to 
make the fibers stand out. Cotton so treated is a good imi- 
tation of linen. 

Tests for sizing. — Such adulteration is quite apparent and with 
a httle practice easy of indentifieation. It renders the material 
smooth but rather harsh. It conceals defects in the cloth which 
can, however, be detected by touch or, if the material is thin, can 
be seen by holding it against the light. Sizing may be removed by 
boiling in a covered kettle. The required time will depend on the 
quantity of dressing. Sometimes the material is boiled in 5 per 
cent solution of oxalic acid to change the starch to dextrin or sugar 
to dissolve it. Cotton that has been treated with olive oil appears 
very opaque and linen translucent, but if much sizing is present this 
test for linen and cotton is not as successful. Crush the material 
and rub together. Pick at the surface with your finger nail and 
the starch or sizing will easily come off. Wet and hang in the air 
Notice the effect on the gloss after wetting. 

Chemical tests for identification of fibers. — Acids and 
alkalies affect vegetable and animal fibers in different ways, 
so by testing woven materials chemically it is possible to 
discover their composition. A fringed sample serves better 
than a closely cut piece. 

1. Place pieces of white cotton and woolen materials in dishes. 
Cover with a 50 per cent solution of nitric acid. The wool fibers 
turn yellow in color. If ammonia is added, the yellow wool will 
turn to orange color. 

2. Place two pieces of wool and two of cotton fabrics in separate 
beakers. Cover one of each with sulphuric acid and the other two 
with 10 per cent caustic soda. Allow them to remain fifteen minutes, 
pour off liquid, wash carefully, and examine. The sulphuric acid 
dissolves the cotton and the wool becomes jellylike, while in the 
alkali or caustic soda the wool is dissolved and the cotton remains 
unchanged. 

3. Boil cotton and wool samples in a 5 per cent solution of caustic 
potash, also samples of cotton and silk, for fifteen minutes. The 
animal fibers of wool and silk will be dissolved and the cotton will 
remain the same. 



COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 197 

4. Moisten samples of wool and cotton with Millon's reagent. 
Place in porcelain dishes and heat gently. The animal fibers be- 
come red, while the vegetable fibers remain unchanged. 

These tests also show that in laundering of fabrics one should 
know the composition of soaps and washing powders and the effects 
they will have on materials. 

5. Cotton and linen are woven together and sold as union mate- 
rial. Place a fringed sample of this union material in a porcelain 
dish. Heat gently in a 50 per cent solution of caustic potash for 
two minutes. Remove with glass rod and dry between filter 
papers. The linen will be dark yellow in color and the cotton white 
or light yellow. 

6. Treat union material in the same way for two minutes with 
concentrated sulphuric acid. Remove with glass rod. The linen 
fibers remain and the cotton dissolves. Linen is not as susceptible 
to acid as cotton. 

This is not a good test for very delicate materials, but rather for 
heavy weaves as toweling and damaslc. 

7. Treat silk vdth. 40 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid for 
two minutes. The silk is dissolved. Also with 30 per cent solu- 
tion of hydrochloric acid for about ten minutes. It will be found 
that very dilute acids will be absorbed by silk with the effect of add- 
ing luster; This will weaken the fibers. Common salt weakens 
silk, especially when it is weighted. A silk dress made of adulterated 
material is apt to show holes if spotted with salt water. The 
cracking and discoloring of silk in presence of salt is due to the effect 
of the salt on the weighting. 

9. Artificial silk when boiled in 4 per cent solution of caustic 
potash will turn the solution yellow, while pure silk leaves a colorless 
solution. Millon's reagent will turn silk red, while artificial silk 
remains unchanged. 

Other tests for fiber. — An examination of the raveled 
warp and woof of materials will often reveal a great deal. 
Cotton fibers are short and the ends appear fuzzy. Wool 
is kinky and stiff. Silk fibers are long, straight, and lustrous 
if reeled silk ; if spun, the fibers are short and break easily. 
Linen is strong and long and ends uneven when broken, but 
more pointed than cotton. Unwrap the warp or woof 



198 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

threads of wool and see if the core is of cotton. Wool feels 
springy and soft. 

Microscopical tests. — The use of the microscope or 
magnifying glass will reveal many things. The fibers of 
materials when unraveled and examined are easily identified. 
Shoddy can sometimes be discovered in this way because of 
color of the threads. Old woolen rags of one color may be 
made up of various colored wools. If the yarn is found to 
contain individual fibers of many colors, it is generally due 
to presence of shoddy. The magnifying glass will also reveal 
whether '' pure silk " so called is silk or simply mercerized 
cotton fiber. The microscopic is the only sure test for dis- 
tinguishing cotton and linen fibers. 

Burning tests. — 1 . Unravel the fibers of both warp and woof. 
Burn with taper. The animal threads burn slowly, char, and 
give off odor of burned feathers. Silk leaves more ash when 
weighted. The vegetable fibers burn quickly with a flame. 

2. Heat cotton and wool samples separately in dry test 
tubes. Notice the condensation on side of tube. The fumes 
from wool when tested with moist red litmus paper will turn 
it blue, showing presence of ammonia. Filter paper wet with 
lead acetate solution and held in fumes will turn black, show- 
ing presence of sulphur. The residue in tube is carbon and 
possibly weighting. Cotton fumes turn blue litmus paper 
red, showing acid present. 

3. Weighted silks burn more slowly than pure silk. If 
very heavily weighted, the flame carries poorly and the form 
of the silk will remain. If it burns to an ash, it is not heavily 
weighted. Burn both warp and woof. 

Test for shrinkage. — Measure width and length of your 
sample. Wash it in hot water and soap. Dry and measure 
again. Is it shorter and narrower? In making up cotton 
or woolen garments which are to be washed, allowance 



COMPARISON OF WOOL, COTTON, SILK, AND FLAX 199 

should be made for shrinkage. Calculate how much the 
tested material would shrink in a yard. 

Test for fading. — Mount a piece of the cloth to be tested on 
a board. Cover one half of it with cardboard or heavy paper 
and expose to the rays of the sun for several days. Remove 
cardboard and notice change. Expose covered piece also in 
bright diffused light as under ordinary conditions of serv- 
ice. 

Test for strength. — Place the two thumbs together and 
press down on the cloth held tightly in the hands. Try to 
break first the warp and then the woof threads in this way. 
Sometimes there are imperfections in the weave or one set 
of threads is better than the other. 

The laws of our country at present offer no protection to 
the purchaser of materials. Woman as the principal con- 
sumer should have a knowledge of adulterations in order to 
protect herself and family, for the question of the honesty 
of fabrics is one that must be met almost daily. Many 
adulterations are so carefully concealed that the use of 
microscope and chemical tests is required to disclose them. 
The purchaser for the everyday household who has no 
such facilities can do much to protect herself by the use 
of simple tests such as have been described above. 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the differences in the microscopical appearances of 
wool and cotton ? Of flax and silk ? 

2. What are the chemical compositions of the four leading fibers ? 

3. Describe the principal characteristics and properties of wool ; 
of cotton ; of flax ; of silk. 

4. How can materials be adulterated by weighting ; by methods 
of finishing ; by combination with other fibers ? 

5. Describe two chemical tests for identification of wool fibers ,* 
for cotton. 



SEWING AND GARMENT MAKING 

CHAPTER XIII 
UNDERGARMENTS 

Hand vs. Machine Work. — With the knowledge of the 
plain stitches gained in the elementary school, it is possible 
for the high school girl to begin the making of undergarments. 
These may be made by hand, by machine, or by a com- 
bination of both processes. There is an indefinable charm 
about handmade lingerie, but very dainty and beautiful 
garments can also be made by machine. Some of the old- 
time drudgery of hand sewing disappeared with the intro- 
duction of the sewing machine, but there are many things 
that affect the general appearance and finish of the garment 
which the machine cannot do. It is useful to know well 
both methods. Very often it is possible to use the machine 
for the long seams of nightgowns, chemise, or drawers, and 
have the trimming and finishing done by hand. Saving of 
time is a great factor and should receive consideration in the 
planning of garments. It is wise to learn early to exercise 
care in handling materials during the construction of gar- 
ments. A dainty, light touch, care in holding and folding^ 
affect the dainty appearance, as well as the neatness of the 
sewing and finishing. 

Undergarments made at home are apt to be more durable 
than ready-made garments. The materials are more care- 
fully chosen, and one garment will often outwear two bought 

200 



UNDERGA RMEN TS 



201 



ready-made. The homemade garments are apt to be better 
finished. A girl who learns to make her own underwear will 
have better looking garments as well as more durable ones, 
and will be able to save about half the cost. In making or 
buying underwear one must consider the laundering and wear- 
ing qualities. Muslin requires washing and ironing and 
should be so made up that the raw edges are carefully 
concealed and the stitches by hand or machine small enough 
to stand the strain and pull of the wringer and washboard. 
Cheap machine-made goods usually have very coarse stitch- 
ing. Lingerie which is trimmed elaborately with ruffles and 
Valenciennes lace is twice as expensive to launder as a plain 
flat trimming of French embroidery, feather stitching, or 
simple linen lace. 
It costs in the time 
and energy which 
must be expended 
— and that time 
and energy often 
represent money 
wasted that might 
be spent to better 
advantage. Flat- 
trimmed underwear 
is easily ironed and 
stands the strain of 
washing better than 
lace and ruffles (see 
Fig. 90). Underwear of cotton crepe is pretty, and econom- 
ical when laundering is a problem, as it does not require iron- 
ing. It can be dried in the air and sunshine and stretched 
and folded ready for wear. 

The ethics of purchase of underwear. — In purchasing 




Courtesy of J. McCutcheon & Co. 
Fig. 90. — French nightgown. 



202 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



underwear ready-made, every thoughtful purchaser is con- 
fronted by an ethical question. Under what conditions of 
labor were the goods manufactured? Many garments are 
made under such insanitary conditions that ready-made arti- 
cles should always be laundered before they are worn. The 
Consumers' League is trying to raise standards in relation 
to the sanitation of workrooms and shops in which clothing 
is made, and to improve the wages, working hours, and 
conditions of workers in the manufacture of women's white 
underwear. The League permits the use of its label (see 
Fig. 91) by manufacturers of women's white underwear who 
give no work outside of their factories, employ no children 




CONSUMERS' LEAGUE LABEL 




UNION LABEL 



Fig. 91. — Consumers' League label and Union label. 



under sixteen years of age, never exact overtime, and obey 
the state labor laws. Seventy firms in the United States 
are using the Consumers' League label. The labels are 
placed on all garments made in factories of firms which 
have agreed to fulfill the above requirements. Have you in 
buying underwear asked for goods bearing the Consumers' 
League label? Many garments are made in tenements 
whers the surroundings are most unhealthy, and the labor 
of women and little children after school hours has been 
put into them. Even babies of four are set to work re- 
moving the basting threads. The ''operators" work an 
unlimited number of hours and receive very little pay. 



UNDERGARMENTS 203 

The prices paid under such conditions for making garments 
by machine are about 75 cents a dozen for nightgowns, 
22 cents a dozen for corset covers, 98 cents a dozen for silk 
waists,. and for other garments in proportion. The pressure 
of work is so great in tenement houses where this labor is 
done that there is little time for preparation of food or care 
of the home. Do you wonder that tuberculosis and other 
diseases thrive under such conditions and are transmitted 
in garments? To-day in New York City over thirteen 
thousand tenements are licensed by the bureau of factory 
inspection of the State Department of Labor. In these build- 
ings work can be done for manufacturers on which the 
whole family labors without reference to factory laws or 
age. The labor law in New York State prevents any child 
under fourteen from being employed in factories. The law 
does not apply to these tenement sweatshops. 

In buying ready-made undergarments one should also 
consider the cut. Do they permit of freedom in the neces- 
sary bodily movements ? Is the material durable and firm 
looking? Muslin will wear better than nainsook. It will 
not pay to buy cheap, flimsy lace. Whether one should buy 
or make undergarments will depend on how much leisure 
time one has or on how well one organizes the use of time. 

In planning to make undergarments one should first 
decide how much time there is at disposal for construction. 
Can one afford to put dainty hand sewing on everyday 
garments, and will handwork stand the wear and tear of 
constant use ? The plain stitches learned in the elementary 
school will all be of use in construction, and the decorative 
stitches described under embroidery are of value for orna- 
mentation. Machine sewing will not be found difficult if 
the machine is studied carefully and some time is spent in 
practice until neat, even stitching is obtained. 



204 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



The sewing machine and its use. — Time will be saved if, 
before beginning to use the machine, the book of directions 
is carefully studied. This can be done as a home study- 
lesson. The mechanism should be understood. The sewing 
machine was invented in 1846 by Elias Howe of Cambridge, 




Country uj W ilcox and Gibbs Sewing Machine Co. 
Fig. 92. — Single thread machine. 

Mass., and improvements on his model soon followed. 
The two principal kinds for ordinary use are the single thread 
or chain stitch machine and the double thread or lock stitch 
type. It is advisable to learn to use both. The single thread 
rips easily, so the ends should be carefully fastened. In 
making hems, tucks, or flat fells on chain stitch machine it 
is necessary to stitch always on the right side, as the 
imder side shows the chain. This necessitates very care- 



UNDERGARMENTS 



205 



ful straight basting. The double thread machine can be 
used effectively on either right or wrong side, and does 
not rip easily (see Figs. 92 and 93). 




Courtesy of New Home Sewing Machine Co. 
Fig. 93. — Double thread machine. 



The attachments for gathering, hemming, and tucking 
all save time, but plain stitching should be learned first ; and 
many prefer to do the preparatory processes of gathering, 
etc., by hand. 



SOME THINGS TO NOTICE BEFORE BEGINNING 

PRACTICE 

1. Look at the parts of the machine below the table. 
Study the relation of the treadle to the connecting rod, and 
to the wheel. What connects the wheel below the table 
with the wheel above? 

2. Above the table, look for the spool holder, the shaft, 
the needle bar, the presser foot, the needle, the needle plate, 
the feed. 

3. The single thread machine has an automatic tension 
that should not be touched ; the double thread has a ten- 
sion screw which regulates the speed with which the thread 
is drawn from spool and bobbin. Find this. 



206 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

4. The double thread machine has a shuttle that fits in 
a shuttle carrier under the needle plate. Find it and remove 
the bobbin from the shuttle. This machine also has a 
bobbin winder. Where is it located ? 

5. Notice how the length of stitch is controlled. In 
some double thread machines a screw in the front of the 
arm must be turned to the right to increase the length, and 
in the opposite direction to shorten. In others a screw may 
be found in a groove at the base of the arm. This may be 
moved forward or backward according to the numbers in 
the table. In the single thread machine notice the lever 
for controlling the number of stitches to the inch, and the 
direction for size of thread to be used. 

A FEW THINGS TO PRACTICE 

1. Learn to tread evenly. This can be practiced before 
threading. 

2. Follow book of directions for threading. 

3. Learn to wind the bobbin if you have a double thread 
machine. 

4. Practice threading the shuttle. 

5. Practice turning the wheel and holding the upper 
thread so as to draw the under thread up through the needle 
plate preparatory to stitching on the double thread machine. 

6. When necessary, practice change of stitch and use of 
tension. 

7. Practice stitching on brown paper without thread. 

8. Practice straight stitching on a piece of ticking or other 
striped material for a guide. 

9. Practice straight stitching on a scrap of plain cloth, 
and try to turn good square corners. That is done by not 
raising the presser foot until the needle is down in the corner 
desired, then, with needle in cloth, raise foot and turn ma- 



UNDERGARMENTS 207 

terial. Practice parallel rows of stitching. Do not stitch 
with pressure foot down without cloth under the feed; it 
spoils the machine. 

A FEW THINGS TO BE CAREFUL ABOUT 

1. Be sure that your machine is clean and well oiled. It 
it becomes sticky or if the machine is to stand unused for a 
few months, oil with kerosene. This will cleanse. Work it 
so that the oil will travel, and wipe off carefully. After cleans- 
ing, oil with machine oil. Use only a good quality. Keep a 
cloth in the machine drawer and always wipe the machine 
carefully before using. 

2. The thread, needle, length of stitch, must all be in 
keeping with the material. For ordinary white work. No. 
80 cotton is about right. Consult book or table of machine 
for size of needle to be used and suitable thread. 

3. // the machine does not work well and is in repair, it is 
generally because it is not threaded properly above or below 
the table, or perhaps the needle is blunt or has been incor- 
rectly set. Examine these parts. 

4. In beginning to sew on the single thread machine, 
throw the thread between the prongs of the presser foot 
until started. Keep the cap covering the looper closed. In 
the double thread be sure the under thread is up before 
starting. 

5. Learn to shorten the belt when necessary. If it is 
loose, the machine works badly. 

6. When stitching bias and straight edges together, the 
bias should be placed down towards the feed, as it is more 
easily stretched and is thus held in as the feed moves for- 
ward. The presser foot holds the straight edge tight. 

7. The table at the left hand is j:he place for the bulk of 
the work. It should not be crow^ded to the right of the pres- 



208 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



ser foot, for it is then impossible to guide the work easily or 
stitch well. 

Selection of materials for underwear. — There are a 
number of cotton materials suitable for underwear. In 
selecting, one should consider the use of the garment. Con- 
sult the hst of common materials under '^ cotton." One can 



All linen Cluny 
insertion. 




All linen Cluny 
edge. 



All linen Cluny 
insertion. 



All linen Cluny 
edge. 



Courtesy of McCulcheon's. 
Fig. 94. — Laces. 

spend a great deal of money on fine nainsook with lace and 
embroidery for trimming ; but if one must economize, it is 
possible to produce very inexpensive and pretty underwear 
with a little thought in, the selection of material and the 
decoration. Instead of lace or embroidery, garments may 



UNDERGA RM.EN TS 



209 



be ornamented with simple stitches. Long cloth or a light 
muslin will give most satisfactory wear if the garment must 




Courtesy of McCutcheon's. 
Fig. 94a. — Laces. 



5 All linen Cluny 
insertion. 



6 All linen Cluny 
edge. 



7 All linen torchon 
insertion. . 



8 All linen torchon 
edge. 



9 Real Irish cro- 
chet insertion. 



10 Real Irish cro- 
chet edge. 



11 All linen hand- 
made Cluny 
lace. 



have hard usage. It pays to buy long cloth by the piece of 
twelve yards. For ordinary wear, if one does not care for 



210 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

a very heavy garment, Berkeley cambric or Alpine Rose 
muslin are satisfactory. Nainsook is finer and softer in 
quality, but not quite as durable. Dimity, lawn, and crepe 
are also used. 

For durability linen laces are the most satisfactory (see 
Figs. 94 and 94a). Torchon and Cluny come in varying 
widths and qualities, and the machine-made Hnen laces in 
imitation of handmade Cluny and torchon are very good. 
Half inch edges and insertions can be obtained for six or seven 
cents a yard. Valenciennes lace is also used on underwear and 
is pretty, but not as durable as linen. The " German Val " is 
the best. There are other cotton laces, but they are generally 
not as pleasing in appearance nor of satisfactory wearing 
quality. Linen and cotton laces are often combined very 
effectively on underwear. Hamburg, Swiss, or batiste em- 
broidery, edging, and insertion are used alone or in combina- 
tion with lace on underwear. They are generally more ex- 
pensive than lace, but come in many qualities. 

Good taste is shown in the selection of materials for 
underwear as well as for outside garments. One should 
know what one can afford to spend, and then in selecting 
should consider the circumstances under which the garments 
will be worn and how they will be laundered. Flat, simple 
garments are easily laundered at home ; and if sent to a laun- 
dry, the charge is less than for more elaborate garments. 
Expensive garments beyond ore's means are not good taste. 

If you are not very experienced in shopping, it would be 
wise to bring samples of materials to be used to class for 
criticism, before purchasing. 

The decoration of underwear. — There are many simple 
and beautiful ways of decorating underwear. A dainty gar- 
ment which warrants the expenditure of time can be put 
together with entre deux, or seam veining as it is sometimes 



UNDERGARMENTS 211 

called, instead of the French or felled seams. Entre deux 
can be bought with swiss or nainsook background. Care 
should be taken to have it match the garment in quality. 

Methods of use of entre deux, or seam beading. — In seams 
of garments. — Cut the muslin at each side of the entre deux 
the width for two seams. Sew as for French seam with 
first sewing on right side of garment and second on wrong. 
This can be done by hand or machine. The second sewing 
should come close to the beading so as to show none of the 
muslin on which the beading is embroidered. Ruffles can 
be attached to one edge of the beading or entre deux in the 
same way, but should be carefully basted before sewed. 

Other uses. — Entre deux or beading is also used in joining 
lace by hand. Cut the muslin close to beading and over- 
hand alternate rows of lace and beading. In overhanding 
hold the two edges together between the thumb and first 
finger. This makes a dainty trimming for sleeve, cuffs, 
collars, or yokes. 

Sewing between rolled edges. — Cut the muslin from both 
sides of the beading or entre deux if both edges are to be 
joined as in placing an insert in a ruffle. Hold the wrong 
side of the cloth toward you. Roll the cloth, beginning at 
the right of the edge to be joined to the beading. This edge 
should have all ravelings cut away. Roll tightly towards 
the worker between thumb and forefinger of left hand. A 
tiny, neat roll requires practice. Keep about two inches 
rolled ahead of the sewing. In joining the rolled edge to 
the edge of the beading with the hemming stitch, pass the 
needle with each stitch under the roll. This keeps it in place 
so no raveled edges will escape. This is called whipping, 
and is a hand-sewing process. 

The introduction of lace as decoration. — Lace insertion 
can be used as suggested above for embroidery, and whipped 



212 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

to rolled edges. When a lace edging is to be attached to a 
rolled edge, it is sewed in the same way, but the lace is held 
a nttle full, or, if more fullness is desired, the top edge of the 
lace is overcasted and drawn up. This is better for full 
ruffles, as it does not weaken or leave an edge at the top. 
Lace edging can be attached to any hemmed edge or ruffle 
by hand. If fullness is desired, the lace should be held a 
little full towards the worker in sewing or the method sug- 
gested above may be used. 

Lace may also be used in designs for decoration of flat 
surfaces. The lace is then basted in the shape of the design 
to the flat surface and sewed at both edges on the right side 
by hand or machine. The edge of the lace should be over- 
casted where round corners are turned. If the lace is sewed 
by hand, a running and backstitch is used or sometimes a 
hemming stitch. Turn to the wrong side. Cut out some 
of the muslin with care not to cut lace, leaving enough to 
turn back at both edges. This can be rolled and hemmed 
by hand to the edge of the lace, or the raveled edge rolls 
itself if overcasted to the edge of the lace. In machine 
work a narrow, neat hem may be basted both sides and 
stitched. 

Whipping of ruffles. — In making underwear or other fine 
white work by hand, ruffles should first be whipped before 
being overhanded to the hem, beading, or lace insertion. 
In whipping a ruffle the edge is rolled as described above 
towards the worker with the thumb and first finger of the 
left hand. The needle is pointed as for the hemming stitch 
and the edge held over the finger in the same way, but the 
needle passes under the roll with each stitch and is brought 
out at the edge between roll and material. In this way the 
thread is gradually passed around the roll in spiral fashion. 
After a few inches of stitches have been taken, the thread 




UNDERGARMENTS 213 

can be pulled and the ruffle drawn up to desired fullness for 
the space that it is to cover. 

Tucking. — It is possible to decorate beautifully and inex- 
pensively with hand or machine made tucks. Care should 
be taken to have them of even width. If made by hand, they 
should be marked with a measure (see Fig. 95). A piece of 
notched cardboard will be found 
easier to handle than a tape meas- 
ure. The machine tucker has a 
guide for marking the fold of the 
tuck and the spaces between. In 
calculating the amount of material ^°* ' ^^ °^^ gauge. 
for tucks, allow for twice the width of each tuck desired. 
In placing tucks, fold the first tuck and stitch ; then meas- 
ure from the stitching of this tuck twice the width of the 
tuck plus the space between for the fold of the next tuck. 

Tucks may be arranged in groups and in ascending or 
descending effects. The effect of an odd number is prettier 
than an even. Tucks may be made with both the warp 
and the woof threads of the cloth, and may be crossed in 
checkerboard fashion. This makes a very pretty decora- 
tion, but one must be rather expert to tuck in this way. 
Tucking combined with fancy stitches such as the feather- 
stitch, lazy daisy, or chain stitch is the daintiest way of 
decorating clothing for children. 

Fancy stitches as decoration for white work can be made 
simply or in elaborate designs in satin stitch. (See em- 
broidery.) Designs may be made and transferred, or simple 
designs may be purchased. The simple arrangements of 
featherstitching and other decorative stitches can often be 
marked directly on the cloth with a hard pencil. Rows of 
featherstitching with French knots between the stitches is 
a pretty decoration to place between groups of hand tucks. 



214 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



The lazy daisy stitch can also be used in rows (see Figs. 
96 and 97). Circles marked with a spool to overlap, and 
featherstitched on the line make a very effective decoration. 
Squares or ellipses followed in the same way are also pretty. 

Featherstitching can 
be used on finishing 
bands where an ex- 
tra hand finish is 
desired. The bot- 
tom of ruffles can be 
finished inexpen- 
sively with feather- 
stitching. Make one turn of material as for a hem the width 
desired. On the right side trace simple curves which should 
not go above the raw edge of turned material. Feather- 
stitch closely on this tracing. Cut out the turned material 
on wrong side close to the feather stitching (see Fig. 113). 







Fig. 96. — Featherstichins of circles interlaced 



^'-0 



r, 



r)S, 






/■+- 



«:v> 






^ScOJ^'tiVrvTt'-' V 



UN. 






Fig. 97. — Hem of ruffle, featherstitching and lazy daisy stitch. 

Scalloping is often used for edges where a flat finish is 
desired. It can be marked by means of a spool and makes 
an effective trimming around necks of chemise, nightgown, 
and top of corset cover. (See embroidery.) 

Mitering lace and embroidery. — In finishing corners it is 
necessary to turn them neatly. A miter will give the 
smoothest finish. Plan carefully by folding embroidery to 
get desired finished effect, then cut, allowing for a seam. On 
the wrong side turn back seam allowance and overhand to- 
gether. When opened and flattened, the raw edges can be 



UNDERGARMENTS 215 

hemmed to the cloth on both sides by hand. The miter 
can also be stitched by machine, but should be basted care- 
fully in straight seam. Embroidery is sometimes joined by 
cutting so the pattern matches and the edges sewed with a 
close buttonhole stitch on the wrong side of seam. WheB 
lace is joined in this way, the seam can be straight or may 
follow the outline of the design of the lace. 

Bias bands as trimming. — A neat finish is obtained with 
bias bands instead of the finishing braid which can be pur- 
chased in plain or decorated patterns. The bias bands are 
used to cover raw edges at the top of ruffles on petticoats or 
drawers or to finish neck or armhole where ruffles have been 
used. The seam joining the ruffle to the garment is on the 
right side. The bias band is cut the desired width and 
basted carefully on both edges so as to cover the raw edges 
of the ruffle. It is stitched on the very edge. Bias bands 
are easily cut if one remembers that in folding the material 
the warp threads of the cloth should lie exactly on the woof. 
The diagonal thus formed is the true bias cut, and any width 
can be made. Other bias cuts can be made, but the true bias 
is the most satisfactory for turning round corners. Do not 
forget that in joining bias bands the seam must be made 
along the warp threads. 

EXERCISES 

1. Give reasons for hand vs. machine made underwear. What 
ideals should regulate the kind of material and decoration ? 

2. What ethical question confronts the purchaser of ready-made 
underwear ? 

3. What are the conditions existing in many factories and tene- 
ments where underwear is made ? 

4. Try to find out what the Consumer's League is doing along 
these lines. Have you joined the Consumer's League of your town ? 
Is there a "white list" of shops where honest goods can be obtained ? 



216 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

What are you doing to relieve the burden of the shop girls at 
Christmas time ? 

5. Compare the single and double thread machines. What 
difficulties were experienced in practice ? What things must one 
exercise care and judgment about in the use of the machine? 

6. Give the names of five different materials used for underwear. 
Suggest various laces and embroideries for decoration. What 
should regulate their use ? Bring to class samples of materials and 
laces for use. Mount on bulletin board with those brought by class 
members. Compare prices, widths, and qualities. 

7. Explain the use of entre deux or seam veining as decoration 
for a nightgown. 

8. Explain three ways in which lace may be introduced as trim- 
ming for undergarments. Explain how to whip a ruffle for a night- 
gown. 

9. Explain how you would trim a corset cover inexpensively with 
tucks, entre deux, and hand work. How much material must be 
allowed in calculating for three i" tucks ? 

10. Explain method of mitering lace for a square yoke of night- 
dress. Explain the cutting of true bias bands. How should they 
be used around armhole of corset cover for finish, and how joined ? 



CHAPTER XIV 
PATTERNS 

Every high school girl should know how to use the com= 
mercial pattern and to alter it to suit her needs. It is also 
possible to learn to draft patterns in a simple, free way. 
Drafting means the making of a pattern according to indi- 
vidual measurements. Drafting helps one to adapt patterns 
to suit individual figures and gives one a better understand- 
ing of commercial patterns. Modeling in crinoline, paper, 
or cotton cloth is another method of making patterns. All 
girls at some time have made patterns for dolls' clothing by 
pinning cloth or paper about the doll, and with scissors cutting 
out neck, armhole, and other parts to form a pattern. Skill- 
ful dressmakers, without use of patterns, join and drape 
materials into desired shapes,' using the scissors to cut away 
superfluous parts. All this is a free way of pattern making. 
In beginning this study one should try to combine the use 
of these various methods in order to have a full understand- 
ing of the many possibilities. If one learns .to model a 
shirt-waist pattern on a figure before learning to draft one, 
there is usually a better understanding of the method of 
making a comprehensive draft and of the changes that can be 
made in commerical patterns to adapt them to individual 
figures. One should learn as soon as possible to take meas- 
urements, for they will be needed in using the commercial 
pattern in order to test it, or in drafting to certain figures. 

How to take measurements. — L The bust measure is 
taken by passing the tape measure under the arms over the 

217 



218 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

fullest part of the bust and crossing tape in the middle oi 
the back between the shoulder blades, sloping the tape very 
slightly upward. Take an easy measure. 

2. The width of back is taken from armhole to armhole 
across the widest part of the back. 

3. The length of hack is from the small bone at the nape 
of the neck to the waistline. 

4. The waist measure is a snug measure about the smallest 
part of the waist. 

5. The neck measure is taken by passing the tapeline 
around as a collar and is an easy measurement. 

6. The width of chest is taken three inches below the lower 
edge of collar band and between the armholes in a straight 
line. 

7. The length of front is from the bottom of the collar 
band to the waistline. 

8. The underarm is taken from the hollow under the arm 
to the waist in a straight line. 

9. The armhole is an easy measure around the arm at 
the shoulder, over the shoulder bone. 

10. The length of arm is taken on the inside from arm- 
hole to the wrist and on the outside by bending the arm 
and passing the tape from the shoulder bone to the elbow 
and on to the wrist. 

11. Skirt measures are taken for waist, hip, and length of 
front, side, and back. The hip measure is an easy one, and 
is taken by holding the tape around the fullest part of the 
hip and is usually about six inches from the waistline at 
the hip. The length of front, hip, and back are taken from 
the waistline to the floor. 

The selection of the commercial pattern. — There are 
many reliable firms furnishing patterns. It is wise to try 
different makes until the most satisfactory is found. The 



PATTERNS 219 

simplest ones where proportions of the figure are studied as 
well as style are usually the best. Patterns are bought by 
measure or by age, i.e. a pattern for a nightdress, drawers, 
or dress for fourteen-year age or as a shirt waist for 34- 
inch bust measure. Patterns for skirts state the waist, 
hip, and length measures. Good sense and thought are 
needed in the selection of patterns, for one should keep in 
mind the figure for which it is to be used. Standard measures 
only are used in making commercial patterns. In some 
figures it may happen that the hip measure is large in pro- 
portion to the waist and consequently waist and hip do not 
bear the same relation as those of the standard pattern. 
In selecting a pattern for such a figure, one should compare 
the measures given on the pattern with those of the person 
for whom it is to be used. If there is a difference, and the 
waist is smaller, it would be good sense in selecting a skirt 
pattern to choose one with the hip corresponding and fit 
the waist. If the waist is larger than the waist of the 
standard, choose one with the proper hip measure and add 
to the seams so as to fit at waistline (see Fig. 98). 

Interpreting patterns. — Before using a pattern it is wise 
to study its pieces carefully. Read the directions and notice 
the numbering of its parts. Usually only one half of each 
part is given. It is wise then to notice carefully the notches 
and perforations, for if only one half of a pattern is given, 
some parts must be placed on a fold of the material so as to 
have those parts cut in one piece. Care and thought must 
be exercised constantly. Some patterns allow for seams and 
others do not. Notice the perforations, especially those 
which indicate how the pattern is to be placed on the warp 
threads. This is a very important point. A group of triple 
perforations at the edge usually means cut that edge of the 
pattern on a fold of the cloth. In studying the pattern be 



220 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

able to identify each part and to tell the relationship of one 
piece to another. 

Testing and altering patterns. — After selecting and study- 
ing the pattern the next step is to test it before use, for 
some alterations may be necessary in order that the gar- 
ment fit well. Take the measurements of the person to be 
fitted and compare these measurements with correspond- 
ing measurements of the pattern. The proportions of 
waist, sleeve, or skirt may be changed in length or width to 
suit figures not quite in proportion to the standard pattern. 
To change length of front or back portions of a shirt waist, 
measure from collar band seam at the back of the neck to 
the waistline, and also of underarm from armhole to the 
waistline. When the figure is long waisted from the arm- 
hole to the waistline and short from underarm to the neck 
or the reverse, change of pattern can be made by slashing 
the pattern and inserting a piece to lengthen, or reducing 
length by taking a plait in the pattern (see Fig. 99). 
The amount will depend on the difference between the 
measure and the pattern at the two lengths. If this altera- 
tion is to be made, it should be done at a distance of about 
24- inches above the waistline. This plait or insert should 
be in a straight line, and may necessitate building up the 
armhole. Sometimes it may be necessary to make two 
plaits or inserts, one between waist and bust and the other 
between bust and shoulder. To shorten or lengthen a simple 
skirt pattern, cut and insert a piece, or lay a plait from 6 to 
8 inches below the hip line in each gore — that will be about 
12^ inches from waist (see Fig. 98). This shows also 
how the pattern can be changed to increase the waist meas- 
ure without changing the hip.^ 

^ A gore is a portion of a skirt and is narrowed at the top to fit the waist 
and flares at the bottom to give fullness. 




Fig. 98. — Alteration of patterns. 
221 




Fig. 99. — Alteration of patterns. 
222 



PATTERNS 223 

* In order to test the commercial pattern after such sug- 
gested changes have been made, cut a simple waist or skirt 
pattern from inexpensive muslin or calico and change it by 
fitting and adjusting to suit the person. This when corrected 
may be kept for a foundation pattern and adapted to chang- 
ing styles. 

Very square or very sloping shoulders cannot be fitted 
with a standard pattern without wrinkles. Very square 
shoulders often cause wrinkles across the chest or in diagonal 
lines from neck to armhole. If wrinkles form at front or 
back of neck crosswise, the pattern must be changed at 
neck and shoulder. The neck should be cut out and the 
shoulder line from the neck to armhole changed in slant 
by dropping at the shoulder. There may also be wrinkles 
at right angles to the shoulder. This necessitates certain 
alterations — stretch the front shoulder, which should be 
shorter than the back. For the sloping shoulder do not cut 
out the neck, but take off some material at the shoulder 
seam, increasing the amount from neck to armhole. This 
will decrease the size of the armhole, which should be made 
larger by cutting away under the arm. The waistline can 
be adjusted to fit the overerect flat shoulder blade by chang- 
ing the slant at center back. Care must be taken in alter- 
ing the pattern for the person who has formed bad habits 
of sitting or standing and allowed fat to accumulate across 
the shoulders. A careful distribution of gathers at the waist- 
line, in fitting, will help to correct this appearance. When 
on such a figure there is fullness at the armhole towards the 
front, so that it stands out, drop the whole front from 1 inch 
to 1\ inches lower than the back at underarm seam and 
build up the armhole (see Fig. 100). 

A knowledge of drafting helps decidedly in the under- 
standing and altering of commercial patterns, therefore it is 




Fig. 100. — Alteration of patterns. 



09 A 



PATTERNS 225 

wise for every girl to learn some simple method of drafting. 
There are many good systems in use. The aim is not to 
commit to memory the system, but to become free, through 
the use of any system, so that one understands parts and 
can invent one's own drafts and change patterns made by 
others. The drafted pattern has the advantage over the 
commerical in not requiring as many changes. 

EXERCISES 

1. Name three types of patterns. Which do you think is in 
most general use? State some advantages of the commercial 
pattern. 

2. Name three essential points to observe in reading the commer- 
cial pattern. 

3. How do you test a pattern? Why? What measurements is 
it necessary to take for testing a waist pattern ; a skirt pattern? 



CHAPTER XV 
THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 

In preparation for simple straight-rule drafting, one should 
have a good rule or square, a tapeline, pencil, and paper large 
enough for the particular pattern to be drafted. The first 
step is to take the necessary measurements for the particular 
garment. With a little practice it will soon become evident 
which measures are needed and why. The second step in 
learning to draft is to make a rough sketch of the outline 
of the pattern you expect to make. This helps in placing 
relationship of parts, and with the beginner aids materially 
in the understanding of them. 

I. One of the simplest drafts for the beginner is the kimono 
nightdress (see Fig. 101). 

(1) The measurements needed are — 

1. Length from highest part of shoulder to floor. 

2. Width across chest plus length needed for sleeves. 

3. Loose bust measure. 

4. Width and length (underarm) of sleeves. 

(2) Make a rough sketch of the kimono gown, as it appears to you. 

(3) To draft: 

Fold the paper, which should be wide, lengthwise through center, 
so that when completed a full pattern of front is made. The pattern 
is to be drafted on the folded edge. 

1. Measure on that edge the length of the garment ST according 
to measure. 

2. At the bottom S measure out at right angles I the width you 
desire the finished gown at the bottom SB. Remember this draft 
on the fold represents but half the front. 

3. At right angles to point T place the shoulder line TL, which 
will be the measurement of one half the chest and sleeve length. 

226 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 



227 




Fig. 101. — Kimono nightdress. 



On that line measure from the fold for the desired neck to be cut out, 
square, round, or V-shaped. 



228 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

4. At point L draw line to represent width of sleeve at right angles 
to TL. LA is the width of sleeve. 

5. Draw the sleeve seam parallel to the shoulder according to 
underarm measure, line AO. 

6. Draw side of garment a good line connecting points and B. 

7. can be rounded instead of a sharp angle and makes a better 
underarm. 

8. The bottom should also be sloped up to sides to give a better 
line and the bottom of sleeve shaped. (See dotted lines in Fig. 103.) 

9. Cut out through two thicknesses of paper, making neck desired 
shape and allow 1" all around for seams. In cutting the neck if 
it is desired lower in front, cut out the pattern on a line for the neck 
desired in back and lower the front portion of material after all is 
cut out. Do not cut the fold. Notch in several places with tiny 
cuts so that garment can be easily put together if stretched. This 
pattern cut gives the full front or back. In most patterns but half 
is given, but in placing the pattern of the kimono nightdress on 
the cloth for cutting out it is easier to haVe a full front than half. 
The shoulder is placed on a crosswise fold of the cloth for cutting. 

II. A simple drawer draft (see Fig. 102). 

(1) Take measurements. 

a. Length of leg from waist to knee. 

b. Waist measure. 

c. Hip measure over fullest part of hip 6" below waistline. 

d. Width desired for drawer leg at bottom. 

(2) Notice shape of the finished drawer leg. 

(3) Draw picture of the way you think the opened pattern of 
one leg should appear. 

(4) To draft: 

1. Fold the paper in half , lengthwise. The draft will be made on 
the folded edge, the upper half of the paper representing the front 
of the drawer leg and the under the back portion. 

2. With the folded edge in vertical position, mark the length 
measure for drawer plus 1|". Begin about 5" from the top edge of 
paper so as to have plenty of room. The edge between M and A'^ 
will be the length of drawer and represents the side of the drawer leg. 
This fold will be placed on the warp of the cloth in cutting out. 

3. At AT draw at right angles a horizontal line to make width 
of leg. This may be ^ waist measure plus 3" or according to measure 
NO. 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 



229 




Fig. 102, — Draft of drawers. 



4. From M measure down | the length plus \\" to locate point P. 

5. At right angles to P draw PQ, which is \ the hip measure minus 
two inches. 

6. Connect OQ for inner side of leg. 



230 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

7. At right angles to MN at M measure ^ the waist measure plus 
1", draw dotted line MR for waistline. This will have to be lowered 
in front and raised at back in making pattern to allow for shape 
of figure. 

8. From M for front of waist, measure on MR ^ the waist measure, 
point S. Below S place point T \" to allow for dip in front of 
drawer. 

9. Connect MT with a slight downward curve and TQ with an 
inward curve for front of drawer leg. 

10. From Q draw slanting line through R extending 4" beyond 
on same slant. QU equals back of the leg. 

11. Connect MU for top of back part of leg. 

12. Darts are from 4" to 5" deep and about 1" wide at top. 
Dart I is placed about 5" from T and dart II about 1" from U. If 
necessary take off dart at placket opening. 

13. The placket opening, which is about 6" in length, is rep- 
resented by the dotted line in draft, parallel to MN and 1" towards 
the back of leg. 

14. If the drawer is to be opened instead of closed, and legs 
faced at center, more room must be allowed in back for lapping. 
The dotted lines indicate the change for the extra fullness for lap. 
At right angles to middle of line UQ draw dotted line 1^" and 
draw an outward curve. 

15. To cut out pattern, cut on all outside lines through two thick- 
nesses of paper. Do not cut the folded edge. Why ? Raise the 
upper half of the pattern and cut on line representing front of 
drawer leg through one thickness of paper only. 

III. The shirt waist (Fig. 103) : 

A good shirt waist draft is most useful, for from it can be made 
not only the shirt waist and variation of waists for simple lingerie 
and one-piece dresses, but the chemise, corset cover, and nightdress 
with sleeve. A thorough understanding of this draft will enable 
one to change it easily, according to measurements, for the other 
garments. 

(I) Take measurements for shirt waist. 

1. Place tapeline around waist, pin in place. 

2. Length of hack. From bone in nape of neck to bottom ot 
tapeline at waist. 

3. Width of back. Across broadest part of back from armhole 
to armhole (not too broad). 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 231 

4. Width of chest. Across chest from armhole to armhole. 3" 
from hollow of neck. 

5. Underarm. Fold tape at 2" point over lead pencil. Place 
pencil horizontally under arm, with care that shoulder of figure is 
not raised unnaturally. Take measure to bottom of tapeline at 
waist. Deduct two inches. 

6. Length of front. From hollow of neck to bottom of tape meas- 
ure at waist. 

7. Neck. Around bottom of neck band, not too tight a measure. 

8. Bust. Easy measure, pass tape measure over fullest part to 
middle of back, raising slightly upward. Measure taken from be- 
hind figure. 

9. Waist. Snug measure at waist. 

10. Armhole. Place tape around arm to bone of shoulder. Snug 
rtieasure when sleeves are small. 

Place the figures of measures gained in this way on the corner 
of sheet of drafting paper or convenient place for easy reference. 

(II) On a waist form or human figure model a half waist in crino- 
line or tissue paper. Place the edge of the crinoline on a line with 
the center of the back, with selvage lengthwise. Pin so that cross- 
wise threads run across width of back. Pin at neck and armhole. 
Crease where shoulder and underarm seams should fall. The tip 
of shoulder for shoulder seam is about one third the distance from 
center front to center back of neck, and about one inch back of 
highest point of shoulder. The top of underarm seam should fall 
on line with it and slope slightly towards back at waistline. Pin 
fullness in at waistline towards center back. For front, pin selvage 
along line of center front. Allow plenty at top to cut neck and 
shoulder. Pin carefully so line is straight across chest. Crease 
shoulder and underarm seams. Cut away extra material. Pin in 
fullness at waistline in plaits. This is good practice before 
drafting. 

(III) Draw a rough sketch of the way you think the half front 
and half back will appear. It is necessary to draft but half of 
each, but for convenience draw them side by side. 

To draft hack : 

1. Towards left edge of paper draw vertical line to represent 
the length of back AB. 

2. At right angles to A draw line A A to represent § the whole 
bust measure plus ^". 



232 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



3. Divide AB in half at C ; this is the back at about underarm. 

4. Divide AC in half at D for location of width of back. 

5. On A A from middle back measure i of | the neck measure 
to E. Raise F I" above E. 

6. At right angles to D draw DG, which measures \ of width of 
back. 

7. At G erect perpendicular line GH same length as AE. 




Fig. 103. —Shirt waist draft 



8. One half inch to right of H on line place /. 

9. Connect A with curve to F for neck and F with straight line 
to I for shoulder. 

10. From C draw at right angles CJ, which equals \ width of 
back plus \ of that measure. 

11. Ki B draw BK at right angles, equaling { the waitsi measure. 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 233 

12. From K draw slanting line through J , which will equal under- 
arm measure KL. 

13. Connect /, G, and L, with an easy curve for armhole. 

14. From B drop line 4" BM. 

15. From K draw slanting line KN for bottom 4" long. This is 
made with rule on F and K. 

16. Connect M find N — straight line. 

To draft front. (In figure this is drawn to overlap slightly the back 
at bottom). 

1. Continue construction lines A A, DD, CC, and BB, all equal 
^ bust plus I". 

2. Towards right edge of paper and at right angles to line A A, 
drawn to represent § whole bust measure plus ^", draw Hne AN in- 
definitely. 

3. On A A from A measure ^ bf ^ neck measure for point E. 



4. From E draw EF, wliich equals 



i • 



5. From D draw DG, which equals | width of front. 

6. From A measure on AN ^ of ^ neck measure plus j". H is 
point of neck in hollow at front ; make neck curve FEH. 

7. To construct shoulder line, measure from A ^ of distance 
between AD. Draw dotted construction line parallel to A A. From 
F measure in slanting line to meet dotted line the length of back 
shoulder less ^". Shoulder line is FI. 

8. From point J of back draft, drop perpendicular dotted line 
to meet Kne BB at point K. 

9. To left of K measure one inch K^. 

10. From K^ draw through J line for underarm of front according 
to underarm measure. It is slightly longer than back underarm. 
Point L. 

11. Draw armhole curve IGL. 

12. From H measure length of front HM. 

13. Connect K^ with M for front waistline. 

14. From M measure down 4" for point N. 

15. From K^ draw slanting line 4" long towards bottom of front 
with rule on F of shoulder and K^. Connect and N. 

To draft shirt waist sleeve (see Fig. 104) : 

(I) Take measurements for shirt waist sleeve. 

1. Length inside of arm minus depth of cuff. 

2. Measure 'around top of largest part of arm plus fullness de- 
sired. 



234 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



3. Measure of hand over knuckles (hand extended as in put* 
ting through sleeve) plus desired fullness. 

(II) This sleeve is to be drafted in one piece. Draw a rough 
sketch of the way it will appear. 

(III) To draft sleeve. Draw dotted lines to form rectangle 

ABCD and draft sleeve 
within it. AB equals 
length of sleeve plus 4" 
or 5". AC equals meas- 
ure around top plus full- 
ness desired. 

On CD from D meas- 
ure length of sleeve DE. 

On AB measure same 
length FB. 

Divide BD for center 
sleeve point G. 

From G in both direc- 
tions on BD measure | 
the hand measure plus 
fullness desired for points 
/ and H. 

Points P and H^ are 
one inch above. 

Join FP and EH^ for 
inside line of sleeve and 
P and H^ with G for bot- 
tom. 

From E measure to 
left three inches for 
point J. Two inches above J place K. 

Divide AC in half for point L at top of sleeve and make top curve 
of sleeve for upper and under side of sleeve. 

IV. To change shirt waist draft to nightdress (see Fig. 105). 
(I) For front. 

1. Continue length of front according to desired length. Meas- 
ure of length is taken from highest point of shoulder to floor. 

2. From that point at right angles draw line for bottom of the 
gown — an indefinite length. 




Fig. 104. 



G a 

•Shirt waist sleeve draft. 




Fig. 105. — Nightgown developed from shirt waist draft. 

235 



236 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



3. Point R from A is | neck measure + U inches. 
Point S equals ^ shoulder from /. 
Connect for neck curve of low-neck gown. 
Point T is 3 inches from K. 




Fig. 106. — Chemise developed from shirt waist draft. 

4. Connect L at underarm and bottom with slanting line 
through J. 

5. Curve at bottom — to give correct underarm length. 

(II) For back. 

1. Continue length of middle back to desired length. 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 



237 



2. From that point draw at right angles line for bottom an indefi- 
nite length. 

3. Point R equals ^ neck — 2 inches. 
Point S equals ^ shoulder from /. 

Connect with neck curve for low-neck gown. 
Point T is 2" from K. 




Fig, 107. — Corset cover developed from shift waist draft. 
4. Connect L at underarm with bottom by slanting line through 



In cutting material, if allowance is to be made for tucks around 
neck in front or back add to the width in placing pattern, according 
to number and width of tucks, at the center front or center back. 
Two inches will give good fullness. (See dotted line in draft.) 

V. To change shirt waist draft to chemise (see Fig. 106). 

Change in same way as for nightdress except at point T, which 
is 1^ inches out from K on both the front and back drafts. This 
is to give less fullness than the nightdress at the waist. The dotted 



238 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



lines in drawing indicate the way in which the chemise can be cut 
on the underarm seam curve at the waist for still less fullness. Two 
inches more or less on front or back can be added for tucks as de- 
sired. Curve at bottom according to length. 

VI. To change shirt waist draft for corset cover (see Fig. 107). 
For front. Allow 2" or more for fullness and plait at front. 

Point R from A = ^ of neck plus 1^". 
Point *S = I of shoulder from /. 
For hack. — 

Point R from A = | of neck — 2". 
Point S = \ oi shoulder from /. 

VII. To draft the peplum for a corset cover (see Fig. 108). if it 
is desired to finish at waist mth less fullness over hips and abdomen. 

1. Draw a square ahcd. ah = ^ 
waist minus 1 inch. 

2. Measure from C four inches 
for point E. 

3. Measure from B four inches 
for point F. 

4. AE = radius of circle for 
waistline, which should equal ^ 
waist measure. 

5. Four inches below FE draw 
. curve BC for bottom of peplum. 

6. FB = center front. 

7. From C measure down Y'. 
Connect E with that point for 
center back. 

VIII. The skirt draft. It is also advisable to l6arn to use a skirt 
draft which can be changed to conform to the varying styles of 
skirts, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9 gored skirts, with panel front and back, 
and the other changes from season to season. From such a draft 
petticoats may also be made. Every high school girl should be able 
to draft such patterns and to learn to alter and adapt others. This 
foundation pattern if well understood will serve such purposes. 

(I) To take measurements for drafting foundation skirt draft. 

1. Place tape around waist and pin. 

Four length measures are needed : center front, center back, 
right hip, and left hip. All are taken from bottom of tapeline at 
waist to floor. 




108. 



Peplum draft for cor- 
set cover. 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 



239 



2. Hip measure. An easy measure around the fullest part of 
hip. Add to this two inches when narrow skirts are worn. 

3. Waist measure. Snug measure. 

4. Measure for dart at hip. Straight line from bottom of tape- 
line at waist, over fullest part of hip to locate depth where hip line 
should be drawn in draft. This varies from 5|" to 6|" in length. 

After taking the necessary measurements the next step is to de- 
cide on the width of the bottom of the skirt. This is in proportion 
to the hip and varies from If to 2^ times the hip. 

(II) To draft the foundation skirt (see Fig. 109). 

1. For construction of waistline and hip draw the rectangle 
ABCD. Only one half of the pattern will be drafted. AB = ^ the 
hip measure. AC 

= tV of 2 the width p 

desired around bot- 
tom. 

2. To locate on 
AB the point for 
the waistline, meas- 
ure from B, I of ^ 
the width around 
the bottom for 
point E. 

3. Draw EF 
parallel to BD. 

4. To locate hip 
dart, divide CF in 
half for point G. 

5. Find the dif- 
ference in length 
between the front 
length and larger 
hip length and 
measure the differ- 
ence above point G 
for point H. This 
allows for the 
proper waist curve 

and dip in front. Draw the waist curve slightly up to meet H from 
C at center front and E at center back. 




Fig. 109. 



- Foundation skirt draft from which skirts 
of gored division can be made. 



240 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



6. Measure from C for the length of front CI. 

7. With ruler at right angles to the waist curve at H measure 
length of larger hip for location of point J at the bottom. 

8. From E draw dotted line for length of back. Point K will be 
located by measuring from I through J and to K for \ of the de- 
sired width at bottom, at point locating length of back from E. 

9. From H with ruler at right angles to waistline measure down 
length of dart measure. Place point L. 

10. Point M is placed on CI. It is the depth of dart minus the 
difference between the front and larger hip length from G. 

11. Point N is 
found on line EK 
and is the depth of 
dart minus or plus 
the difference be- 
tween the hip and 
back length. 

12. Draw the 
hip curve. 

13. Measure the 
hip curve of draft 
and compare with 
measure taken. If 
too short, draw a 
new back length 
Une at the extension 
point and extend 

u waist curve beyond 
E to meet it. This 
does not increase 
the width at bot- 
tom. 
-Six-gored skirt draft from proper division This foundation 
of the foundation skirt. draft of skirt can 

now be divided to make a 4, 5, 6, 7, or 9 gored skirt. 

III. To divide the foundation draft into six-gored skirt (see Fig. 
110). 

1. Make the foundation draft according to measures. The space 
within the outline of skirt is to be divided for six gores. This is 
but half the skirt. 




Fig. 110. 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 



241 



2. Draw front gore. Measure on the hip line i of | hip measure. 
Place dot. On bottom line from front line measure If times the 

space from front to dot placed for hip point of front panel. Con- 
nect these two dots continuing to waistline. 

3. Draw back gore. This is \" wider at hip line from center 
back than the front panel, and is If times this width at bottom. 
Draw hues connecting point at bottom with hip and waistline. 

4. Divide remainder of hip line in half. Divide remainder of 
bottom line in half. 

Move this last point 1^ inches towards front. 

Draw Une through these points to waist for hip seam. 

5. The waistline is too large, so darts must be taken. Measure 
waistline of draft. Sub- 
tract from this | the waist 
measure of figure ; the 
remainder must be taken 
out in darts on \ the 
pattern. 

First. Take off from 
front and back gores, 
on the side of front to- 
wards first gore measure 
at waistline | to i of an 
inch and make curve to 
hip line. On the back 
gore side towards side 
gore measure off | to I 
inch at waist and draw 
curved line to hip line. 

Second. On first gore, 
side towards front, take 
off at waistline f to 1 
inch. Draw curve to hip 
line. 

On second gore, side 
towards back at waist take off 
line. 

Third. Subtract sum of what has been taken out in darts from 
amount needed to be taken out and take the remainder from seams 
over the hips. 




— Four-gored skirt made from the 
foundation skirt draft. 

to Ij inches. Draw curve to hip 



242 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

It is advisable to take off slightly more on the bias edge of the 
gore than from the straight. Draw curved lines to hip. 

IV. To divide foundation draft into four-gored skirt (see Fig. 111). 
Make division for front and back gores with, dart off at waist as for 
six-gored division. One gore is left for the side. The hip dart is 
taken at the hip point of elevation and is carried down much deeper, 
about nine or ten inches. The slope for dart curves is calculated as 
for six-gored division, 

V. To divide foundation draft into five-gored skirt. 
Use the same division for back as for six-gored. 

Combine the front and first gore. In order to reduce width 
of this combination gore move the hip seam forward one inch. This 
will increase the width of second gore. Make darts as suggested for 
six and four gored division. 

With the above practice in division of this skirt outline it is 
possible to divide the space according to style into 7, 9, or 11 gores. 

EXERCISES 

1. What is drafting ? What help is such knowledge in the use of 
commercial patterns ? 

2. Explain how measurements are taken for a nightdress ; corset 
cover ; petticoat ; drawers. 

3. What principles should be kept in mind in selecting a commer- 
cial pattern ? How can one learn to interpret them ? 

4. Draft a pattern of a kimono gown for some one at home. 

5. Draft pattern for drawers with full width leg. 

6. Draft a foundation skirt pattern using the following measures : 
Hip 40". 

Lengths : Front 40" ; Right hip 41^"; Left hip 411"; Back 

42". 
Dart 61". 
Waist 24". 
I desired width of bottom 33^". 

7. Draft a shirt waist and show how it can be changed for use as 
a nightdress. Use following measures : 

Length of back 15". 
Width of back 13". 
Underarm 8^". 



THE DRAFTING OF PATTERNS 243 * 

Length of front 16". 
Neck 121". 
Bust 36". 
Waist 24 ". 
Armhole 14". 

8. Take the measurements of a corset cover which you like and 
draft a pattern. 

9. From the foundation skirt draft make a pattern according to 
the prevaiHng style you desire. 



CHAPTER XVI 
CUTTING AND MAKING GARMENTS 

Cutting of underwear and other garments. — Before cut- 
ting into material it is wise to lay all the pieces of the pattern 
on the cloth. A large fiat surface is necessary. Much care 
and thought should be exercised in placing the pieces. 
When there is a nap or pile, it should run towards the bottom 
of the garment. See that flowers or figures all run one way, 
and be careful to match plaids so that where they meet at 
seams the prominent stripes match instead of meeting at 
angles to each other. If the material has a right and wrong 
side, care must be taken not to cut the parts ali for one side 
of the garment, such as two sleeves for one arm. This can 
be avoided by folding the cloth with two right or two wrong 
sides together and cutting two at once, or by placing the 
right side of the portion cut to the right side of the material 
and using it for a pattern. When figures and right and 
wrong sides must be considered, careful planning is neces- 
sary and as a rule more cloth is needed, for the pieces can- 
not be placed as economically. 

In placing the pieces be as saving as possible. The wide 
end of a gore or portion cuts to better advantage at the cut 
end of the cloth. Always remember the triple perforations 
representing half a skirt front or back portion of a waist 
must be placed on a fold of the cloth. Follow directions 
given on patterns for placing, as for instance the line of large 
single perforations on the warp. 

Pin the parts carefully first where straight edges come, 

244 



CUTTING AND MAKING GARMENTS 245 

and smooth carefully towards top and bottom and pin. Do 
not use too many pins. Cut on the line of pattern unless 
necessary to allow seams. Use long shears and cut with 
even edges. Mark the notches with a pencil, chalk, or 
basting thread. Never cut notches in cloth. 

The fitting of undergarments. — Comparatively little fit- 
ting is necessary, if the measurements have been carefully 
taken and the commercial pattern altered or draft made for 
the individual. Care should be taken to have the armhole 
comfortable and in fitting the nightgown or corset cover, 
notice especially if this needs to be slashed in fitting and 
later cut out. The length- of garments should be noticed 
especially, and all should be fitted loosely, as they will shrink 
somewhat in length and width when laundered. In fitting 
petticoats made from the commercial pattern, be sure the 
pattern is understood. If the hip is smaller than waist 
measure the hip seam must be taken in ; if the pattern for 
the individual has a waist measure in proportion to its hip 
but larger than the waist of the person to be fitted, it must 
be fitted at the waistline. Drawers and combinations 
should be smoothly fitted over the hips so that no wrinkles 
will show through the outer garments. 

SUGGESTED PROBLEMS IN SEWING 

I. Simple machine work in preparation for more advanced 
machine sewing on garments. 

1. Pillow case. — To be made of muslin of desired width. 
Practice in stitching can be had on the long seam at side 
and across end. Turn, baste, and stitch three-inch hem. 

2. Protecting cover for gowns. — There are many simple 
patterns of this kind, from the bag with draw strings at the 
top to the oblong bag with turnover piece at top where hole 



246 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

is left for the hanger. Such covers offer splendid oppor- 
tunity for practice in stitching and are very useful. They 
can be used to cover gowns stored away in a closet or for 
light, perishable ones. Canton crepe, unbleached muslin, 
lawn, and dimity are suitable. If made with a flap at the 
top, this turnover piece can be bound with tape or ribbon 
as can the hole at top where hanger protrudes, or edges can 
be hemmed. 

3. Aprons. — Current magazines suggest many kinds of 
aprons which can be made by machine. The simple nurse's 
or maid's aprons offer opportunity for practice. The one- 
piece princess style is very useful for kitchen wear and can 
be made of tan or blue chambray or figured percales. 

4. Laundry or stocking hags. — There are many varieties 
of such bags. Church fairs often have suggestive types. 
The bag with a draw string is very useful. The laundry 
bag can be extended at the top with a stick and a slit cut 
in the middle of the front side and bound. There are many 
possibilities in materials, and combinations of two kinds can 
be used for strength as well as artistic effect. Cretonnes 
and linens are strong enough for this purpose. The stocking 
bag can be made with a round or oval stiff pasteboard 
covered with the same material for the bottom, and the bag 
part arranged with pockets before it is attached. 

5. Traveling cases. — Cases of linen lined with rubber or 
linen are very useful. They can be divided in partitions for 
hairpins, pins, combs, brush, powder, and other necessary 
articles. They can be bound with tape or white linen in 
contrast. A very nice present for a traveler is an outfit of 
cases. This is composed of three flat pieces bound or hemmed 
to cover over clothes in trays of trunk. They can be hemmed 
or bound by machine and marked with cross-stitch letters. 
Small bags for shoes and slippers also marked add to the set. 



CUTTING AND MAKING GARMENTS 



247 



The flat case with partitions above mentioned completes the 
outfit. 

Cases for rubbers are also very useful for traveling, and can 
be made by machine and decorated with cross- or feather-stitch. 

6. Other cases. — Cases for flat silver can be made of long 
strips of cotton flannel in white or colored, partitioned and 
bound according to 
spaces desired. These 
can be rolled up and 
tied with a piece of 
ribbon or tape like the 
binding. Cases for 
centerpieces or doilies 
can be made of a flat 
piece of cretonne or 
linen with lining of 
same or contrasting 
color, and attach a 
round stick at one end 
of the strip so as to 
roll the doilies. This 
round stick may be a 
piece of broom handle. 
A space as a casing is 
left at one end and 
the stick slipped be- 
tween the two thick- 
nesses of material. 

The above articles 
suggest some possibilities for machine practice. If one or 
more of the above are made, they may serve as gifts. 

II. Problems which offer review of hand stitches learned 
in the grades (see Fig. 112). 




Fig. 112. 



Courtesy of J. McCutcheon. 
■Dainty neckwear. 



248 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



1. Work bags. 

2. Slipper bags. 

3. Serving aprons, chafing-dish aprons. 

4. Corset cover or 
Marguerite (see Fig. 

115). 

5. Jabots. 

6. Collar and cuff 
sets. 

7. Baby dresses 
and caps. 

III. Garments to 
be made by machine 
or to offer practice in 
combination of hand 
and machine pro- 
cesses. 

1 . Kimono night- 
dress. — Use commer- 
cial or drafted pat- 
tern. The garment 
may be cut from SJ 
yards of material, 40 
inches wide. Flat fell 
or French seams by 
machine. Hem three 
inches at bottom by 
hand or machine. 
Groups of tucks at 
yoke if too full. 
Trimmed at yoke with 
flat trimming of lace insertion and edging or scant ruffle put 
on with bias bands. Bottom of sleeves trimmed to correspond 




Fig. 112a. 



Courtesy of J. McCutcheon. 
Dainty neckwear. 



CUTTING AND MART NO GARMENTS 249 

with yoke. (See description of lace as decoration, whipping, 
etc., Chapter XIII.) 

2. Drawers (see Fig. 113). — Use drafted or commercial 




Fig. 113. — Drawers showing featherstitching. 

pattern. 2i yards of cloth are necessary. Prepare ruffles 
with simple decoration of featherstitching (see decoration 



250 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

and Figures 98 and 99), or ruffles with inserts of lace, or hem 
and lace edging. Ruffles should be one and one half times 
the width of space to be covered, or twice if much fullness is 
desired. Divide ruffles and drawers legs in quarters and 
adjust fullness evenly. These can be joined to bottom of 
legs as whipped ruffles joined with entre deux or bands of 
embroidery insertion. Bias bands or finishing braid may 
be used instead of a receiving tuck made at the bottom of 
each leg and turned over the rough edges of the seam. The 
legs and ruffles can be seamed separately and then joined, or 
the ruffles attached and seamed with the leg, using the flat- 
felled seam. The latter process is an easier method when 
the machine is used. By hand it is daintier to finish the 
ruffles separately and then attach them. Face the open 
drawers with a true bias facing f of an inch finished. For 
closed drawers apply flat fell by hand or machine. The 
placket openings are cut according to draft, 1 inch to the 
back of center leg. Face opening with two-inch strip cut 
lengthwise of the cloth. This is basted around the entire 
opening and stitched in seam. Turn to the wrong side and 
stitch 1 inch wide half the length of the opening. The other 
side is finished by cutting away half of the width of facing 
less a seam and folding it back on the garment. This can 
be stitched or hemmed by hand. Take dart to fit figure 
over hips ; use felled seams. Face top with same width 
facing. Tape can be run in or drawers lapped and two small 
buttonholes placed one below another. 

3. Chemise. — Use commercial pattern or altered shirt 
waist draft. Twice the length desired plus material for 
ruffle is necessary. French seams by machine. One-inch 
hem at the bottom or ruffle by hand or machine. Trim at 
armholes or around low neck as desired. Embroidery bead- 
ing, for ribbon with lace edge not too full, makes a neat 



CUTTING AND MAKING GARMENTS 



251 



finish. Scalloping with eyelets for ribbons and feather- 
stitching makes an inexpensive and attractive trimming. 
Armholes should correspond with the neck finish. 




Fig. 114. —Petticoat. 



4. Petticoat (see Fig. 114).— Cut 'from five-gored skirt 
draft or commercial pattern; 4-4^ yards are required. 



252 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

French seams by machine. Dust ruffle at bottom — width 
4 inches finished. Cut across warp. Join widths (sel- 
vedges) with overhanding stitch. Finish bottom of ruffle with 
^-inch hem. Join to bottom of skirt with receiving tuck 
f inch wide sewed flat. (The receiving tuck covers the raw 
edges of the ruffle where attached to skirt with seam on right 
side of skirt, and leaves no raw edges on wrong side.) Pre- 
pare the overruffle. This may be from 6 inches to 10 inches 
or deeper and of embroidery or same material with inserts 
of lace, tucks, lace edging, as desired (see Fig. 114). This 
ruffle may also be of a finer or heavier quality of cloth. It can 
be hand scalloped or trimmed with featherstitching (see 
Fig. 113). Divide ruffle in quarters, quarter skirt, and baste 
so bottom of ruffle is | inch above the bottom of the dust 
ruffle. To cover raw edge at top of ruffle a narrow bias band 
or finishing binding can be basted and stitched on both edges 
so as to lie flat. Embroidery beading for ribbon can also 
be used and is trimmed and stitched close at both edges. 
The top of ruffle can be finished also with a receiving tuck 
f inch deep taken in skirt just above the raw edges of ruffle 
and turned down over them and stitched flat. To finish the 
top of skirt take darts to fit figure if necessary. Finish 
placket with straight strip 2 inches wide. This is made by 
starting the strip at the waistline with right side of strip to 
right side of skirt. Stitch and turn to wrong side and hem 
by hand. Lap at bottom of opening so it lies flat and back- 
stitch across the bottom with slanting line of stitches. In- 
stead of this facing, that suggested for drawers might be 
used. The back is without fullness and flat as possible. 
Finish top with J-inch true bias facing of same cloth turned 
evenly with the top and stitched flat. Lap in back with 
three buttonholes, one at waist, two below on the placket 
lap. 



CUTTING AND MAKING GARMENTS 253 

5. Satin or sateen petticoat. — This can be made, involving 
the same principle as the above. The overruffle can be 
pinked or side plaited. 

6. Dressing sacque. — Cut from commercial pattern. 
Lawn, crepon, dimity, or light madras. Seams French. 
Finish front with hems turned to wrong side, to lap down 
front. Bottom with narrow hem J to 1 inch. Neck with 
flat trimming or collar as desired. Collar if attached joined 
to neck flat and finished with bias band J inch basted on right 
side. Sew band and collar to sacque with same stitching, 
turn with even edge at neck and hem band flat on inside of 
the sacque. Finish botton of sleeve with trimming to cor- 
respond with neck, cuff, or flat trimming. Seam sleeves with 
French seam. Sleeves put in with French seams. Place 
underarm seam of sleeve 2 to 2J inches to front from under- 
arm seam of sacque. Baste with seam on right side, adjust 
gathers so they are distributed 2 inches back of shoulder and 
4 inches to front of seam. Turn seam and finish with second 
sewing on wrong side. Baste before stitching. 

7. Corset cover (see Fig. 115). — Cut from adapted shirt 
waist draft or commercial pattern. One and one half yards 
of cloth are necessary. French seam at shoulder and under arm 
— hand or machine. Front to lap right over left. On left 
make hem f inch wide turned to wrong side. On right of 
front make turn to right as for hem. Stitch, featherstitch, 
or run by hand | inch from each edge of front lap and edge 
of hem to hold in place. This makes lap for front buttons 
and buttonholes. If buttons are to be concealed, a doubled 
strip can be hemmed under right lap for the buttonholes. 
Even the bottom and finish with narrow hem. Gather, at 
waistline center front and center back to fit figure. On in- 
side under adjusted gathers baste narrow straight band J 
inch wide. Stitch top and bottom. The waist can also 



254 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

be finished with band on the outside or a row of beading 
Top of cover can be gathered to fit figure, finished with entrs 
deux and lace edging attached with beading or whipped 
ruffles (see Chap. XIII). Armhole finished to correspond 



115. — Corset cover. 



A very neat finish for neck and armholes of corset cover can 
be made by turning narrow hems | inch wide to the right side 
first, and then turning back to the wrong side as for napery hem. 
Overhand. If lace or beading is to be added, it can be joined 



CUTTING AND MAKING GARMENTS 255 

at the same time. By this method no stitches are visible 
on the right side. Buttonholes should be placed lengthwise 
of the box plait. If a smoother fit is desired over the hips, 
a peplum can be drafted (see Fig. 108) and attached to the 
waistline of cover with seam on right side. The raw edges 
can be finished with a flat, straight band J inch wide or a band 
of beading or lace insertion. 




Fig. 116. — Nightdress. 

8. Nightdress with sleeves (see Fig. 116). — Cut from adapted 
shirt waist draft or commercial pattern. Three widths of 
the desired length are necessary. Make flat felled seams at 
underarm and shoulder. Hem at bottom 2 inches. Open 



256 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

down front § of distance from neck to floor. Face with 
placket facing as described for plackets of closed drawers. 
Finish both back and front with tucks according to fullness 
allowed. These can be made by hand or machine, as time 
permits. The high neck gown can be finished with band of 
embroidery insertion and tiny ruffle of lace. The sleeve 
trimming should correspond. Place sleeves in position and 
sew as for dressing sacque. A very neat, dainty finish for 
a low neck gown can be inexpensively made by using bias 
bands of lawn about one inch finished (Fig. 116). These 
can be attached around low neck and short sleeve with 
entre deux or simply stitched and turned to wrong side. 
Colored ribbon can be run through this casing. There 
are many other possible ways of finishing with long or 
short, gathered or loose sleeves. (See for descriptions of 
decorations of underwear, Chap. XIII.) 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the important points to bear in mind in the placing 
of patterns and cutting out of garments ? 

2. Give a few suggestions in relation to the fitting of underwear. 

3. Describe the way in which a French seam is made on under- 
wear ; a felled seam. 

4. How would you prepare the ruffles for drawers ? Describe 
two methods of attaching them to the legs. 

5. Describe the placing of the sleeve for a nightgown or dressing 
sacque. 



CHAPTER XVII 
EMBROIDERY 

Suggestions for the study of the history of embroidery. 

— All girls have interest at some time or other in embroidery. 
It is a satisfaction and a pleasure to be able to ornament one's 
gowns in a simple way, to make some household article more 
attractive, or to prepare simple gifts for friends. There are 
a few of the most common stitches which if learned in rela- 
tion to proper placing, color, combination of stitches, and 
adaptation to material produce very pleasing results. It is 
interesting also to study in museums and books the relation- 
ship of the embroidery of to-day to the beautiful embroidered 
textiles of other centuries and embroideries from foreign 
lands . Embroidery is the enriching of textile fabrics and other 
materials with needlework. The art is an old one, and the 
most primitive people have made use of the needle in this 
way and do to-day. Among the relics of the Swiss Lake 
Dwellers have been found most crude needles to prove the 
antiquity of the art. In the museum at Cairo, Egypt, there 
are several fragments of linen woven in blues, greens, reds, 
and black and ornamented with needlework. The remains 
of Egyptian garments and mummy wrappings found in the 
tombs are most interesting. The lotus flower designs of 
Egypt are fascinating and one piece bears the name of the 
owner, of the fifteenth century B.C. In the British Museum 
in London, and the Louvre in Paris are to be found interesting 
pieces of old Assyrian and Persian embroideries dating back 
s 257 



258 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

to 485 B.C. Many of the Biblical writers of the Old Testa- 
ment mention the use of ornamented textiles. Pliny in his 
writings mentions the embroidered garments of the Phrygians. 
The examples which remain of Roman embroideries of about 
the fifth century show figures, animals, birds, flowers, and 
foliage. The method of making was really weaving supple- 
mented with decoration. Later the influence of the Chris- 
tian era is seen in the work and the symbols used. There is 
also a greater choice of color. Later examples show pic- 
torial Bible scenes. One notices in studying the history of 
embroidery the influence of the Byzantine style of the highly 
conventionalized forms. This lasted for several centuries 
until probably the thirteenth century. 

There are also many interesting examples in museums of 
embroideries of the middle ages. While this work was used 
to adorn curtains, garments, and articles of household use, 
the pieces preserved were generally the vestments and eccle- 
siastical articles. The monks produced some of this work and 
much was made in convents, but there are records of the guilds 
of embroiderers of the middle ages. In England the art was 
a favorite employment for many centuries, and flourished 
especially during the thirteenth century. 

Linens embroidered in wools, silks, and metallic embroidery 
were very beautiful. The famous Bayeux tapestry is 231 
feet long and 20 inches in width. It depicts in embroidery 
in seventy-two scenes the conquest of England by the 
Normans. It is embroidered in worsteds in eight colors on 
linen which is now light brown from age. 

There are many interesting examples of French embroidery 
characterized by great beauty. The schools of painting in- 
fluenced the work of the embroiderers, and pictures were 
copied in great detail, showing draperies beautifully shaded, 
marbles, and architectural designs. There are also ma,ny 



EMBROIDERY 259 

interesting samples of applique, where figures and designs have 
been cut from velvet and other materials and embroidered 
in places. 

The embroideries of Italy show great skill and beauty. 
Many are worked in gold and silver and silks of many colors 
on wonderful materials of silk and velvet. The designs were 
often made by well-known artists. There are many beauti- 
ful examples also of applique, couching, and cutwork on linen. 
Some of the Sicilian examples are very interesting and follow 
those of Italy, in quilting and padding with wool to throw in 
relief the design. 

Spanish embroideries reflect the influence of the Arabs' 
Oriental patterns, and many of the old German embroideries 
follow the Byzantine traditions. 

Indian, Chinese, Turkish, and Persian embroideries date 
back to early times. Many of these are beautiful in texture 
and design. Some Indian and Turkish embroideries are en- 
riched with pieces of glass, tinsel, and beetle wings. Chinese 
and Japanese embroideries are usually done in silk on a back- 
ground of silk. Japanese designs are more pictorial in char- 
acter, while the Chinese include dragons, birds, and flowers. 
The surface effects of some of the Chinese embroideries are 
often wonderfully smooth and regular. In the Persian em- 
broideries of carpets, robes, and hangings, a preference is 
shown for floral designs. In the Victoria and Albert Museum 
is a beautiful linen prayer rug quilted and embroidered in 
chain stitch of silks in yellow, green, white, and red. The 
design is a floral one. 

With the complexity of modern civilization the interest 
in the making of beautiful embroideries in England and Amer- 
ica has somewhat subsided. The Royal School of Needle- 
work in England is reviving the interest and there is much 
improvement over the seventeenth and eighteenth century 



260 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

examples. The influence of the art of WiUiam Morris and 
Burne-Jones was felt in the embroidery of the nineteenth 
century and helped to improve the designs. 

A FEW USEFUL EMBROIDERY STITCHES AND HOW 

TO MAKE THEM 

Darning stitch is made with rows of even or uneven running 
stitches so placed that the stitches of alternate rows come 
under the spaces of the row above. Huckaback toweling 
is sometimes used as a basis for darning decoration. This 
is a useful way of filling in a space and making a figure 
stand out in relief (see Fig. 117). 

Chain stitch is found on Oriental embroideries. The stitch 
resembles links of a chain. Designs can be outlined with this 
stitch or it can be used for filling in designs so as to bring them 
in relief as in Persian work. It is sometimes used simply 
in outlining or for filling in initials on towels or other articles 
before covering with satin stitch. It is made by bringing 
the needle to the right side on the line of work, holding 
thread with thumb of left hand and replacing needle in same 
hole from which thread was first drawn. Then the needle 
is drawn through loop formed. The loops should lie flat. In 
making this stitch the needle is brought up each time the same 
distance as the stitch from first hole. The stitches are even 
and are always taken in the loop of the chain, not below it. 
(See Fig. 117 for application.) 

Blanket stitch is most useful and can be used for edges of 
scallops to prevent fraying, or other edge finishings. Walla- 
chian embroidery is blanket stitch used to make relief de- 
signs rather than on edges. It is worked from left to right. 
The work is held with the edge towards the worker. The 
stitch is started with a few running stitches and the needle 
brought up close to the edge. Hold the thread under left 



EMBROIDERY 261 

thumb and insert the needle at the depth desired, carrying 
needle up under edge and through the loop thus made. The 
thread should lie along the edge. This stitch can be varied 
to form ascending and descending groups or made all of one 
depth. For scalloped edges, which can be marked with a spool, 
it is wise to pad the scallop before using blanket stitch unless 
the thread used is very heavy. For padding, especially on 
flannel, run the outline of the scallop with small running 
stitch and near edge of scallop make one row of chain stitches. 
The blanket stitch is made over this padding, and the 
stitches are taken close together. Blanket stitch for blanket 
edge or other decorative purposes can be taken with spaces 
between stitches. This is a very useful and durable edge for 
towels or table linen. See Figure 117 for use of stitch for 
scalloping. See Figure 118 for other uses of blanket stitch. 
Featherstitching is one of the most useful for purposes 
of ornamentation, and makes a beautiful and simple trim- 
ming. It is made in several varieties and is used to outline 
designs or in straight rows as at the top of a hem to hold 
it in place. It can be made with any kind or weight of thread 
in same or contrasting colors. When daintily made with 
white D.M.C. cotton, it is very effective on baby dresses and 
fine lingerie. While learning the stitch it is well to draw 
pencil marks or to run in a thread as a guide if the practice 
piece is not striped. The stitches are taken to the right 
and left of the line alternately. Bring the needle through on 
the line. Hold the thread down on line with left thumb. 
Insert needle for short slanting stitch to left of line pointing 
towards right. Draw needle through so thread looped will lie 
flat. Then with thread again on the line take slanting stitch 
at the right towards the left. The variations of stitch are 
made by taking two or three double or triple featherstitches, 
instead of one each side of the center line. The stitch must 



262 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

be done very evenly to produce a pleasing effect, especially 
when used on curves. (See Fig. 117 for application.) 

French knots are very often used with featherstitch for 
variation and additional ornamentation for the centers of 
flowers, and for filling in a space inclosed by outline or other 
stitch. Bring thread up through cloth in the place knot 
is to appear. Take a slight backstitch and with the needle 
protruding from cloth, wind thread around needle two or 
three times. Draw needle through, while holding coils of 
thread close with left thumb. Insert needle again on edge 
of coil in same place to hold securely. Pass needle without 
cutting thread to the next place where knot is to be made. 

The lazy daisy stitch is also used with French knots and 
featherstitching on white work. The stitch is made by draw- 
ing needle to right side, forming a small loop of thread and 
replacing needle in same hole. The opposite end of the loop 
to the hole is caught with a tiny overstitch (see Fig. 97). 

Outline stitch is one of the most common and useful. It 
is used to outline designs and the stitch is taken on the line. 
Care must be taken to throw the thread one way all the time 
in order that the effect may be regular. The stitch pro- 
gresses from left to right. To begin, draw needle to right 
side on the line. Throw thread to one side, take backstitch 
on the line with needle pointing towards worker. This will 
make longer threads on the surface than the short back stitch 
beneath. Repeat. When the stitches are placed rather 
close together, the effect is prettier than when they are far 
apart. (See Fig. 117 for application.) 

Cross-stitch is usually worked over open meshed canvas 
unless the material is so woven that the stitch can be regularly 
placed. If canvas is used as a guide, its threads can easily 
be withdrawn after the design is completed. This stitch 
is a useful one for marking linen (see Figs. 117 and 119) 



EMBROIDERY 263 

or underwear and for fancy work. Baste the Penelo canvas 
very carefully in place so that the warp threads of the canvas 
lie on those of the fabric. The stitch consists of two slanting 
lines crossed. On the wrong side the stitches may be either 
horizontal or vertical. The canvas is so woven that the cross 
will be made over two threads high and two wide. Bring 
needle up to the right side at lower left corner of the square 
that the stitch would form if inclosed ; pass thread slanting 
across the warp threads and take stitch, pointing needle 
towards the worker and on line with the warp. When 
thread is drawn through, a slanting line of half the cross is 
made. This can be repeated across a whole row, finishing 
the crosses by returning from right to left with the same 
vertical stitches. Care must be taken to have all the stitches 
cross in same way. All the ground stitches should run in 
one direction and all stitches crossing should run the opposite 
way (see Fig. 119). 

Herringbone or catch stitch. — This stitch is useful for 
ornamentation or for holding down flannel edges which are 
liable to shrink in washing. It is made from left to right 
and resembles cross-stitch. While learning, a thread or 
line as guide is a help. The catch stitch is made of back- 
stitches placed alternately above and below the guide line. 
The spaces between stitches should be the same and the 
stitches below opposite the spaces between those above. 
This arrangement causes the thread to slant and makes the 
cross. (See Fig. 117 for application.) 

Satin stitch is used on all kinds of materials for ornamenta- 
tion and in making initials on linen. It is an over-and-over 
stitch. Many people get the best results by working this 
stitch in a frame or embroidery hoop. If it is desirable 
to have the stitch high, it should be carefully padded with 
rows of chain or outline stitches running the opposite direc- 



264 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

tion from the final satin or surface stitch. Padding is un- 
necessary if the thread is heavy. The needle is pointed from 
right to left of design, carrying the thread over and over and 
placing the stitches close together. The design can be fol- 
lowed from top to bottom or in the opposite direction. Care 
must be taken to place the needle always on the line of desigUo 
When single lines occur, an outline stitch may be used or the 
over-and-over, taking only a small hold of the cloth to produce 
a cordlike effect. This stitch is used a great deal on white 
work and also in colored silk embroidery (see Fig. 117). 

Hemstitch is made after threads have been drawn at the 
top of a hem or tuck. Measure carefully twice the width 
of desired hem plus turning and draw three or four woof 
threads. Then baste hem carefully along line of first drawn 
thread. The hem should be held in a vertical position over 
the fingers of the left hand. Place needle in edge of hem 
and draw thread without a knot under the edge of the hem 
as for plain hemming. Throw thread away from worker and 
take up bundle of threads by passing needle under them and 
pointing it along edge of hem. Again pass needle under same 
bundle, but this time bring through the under cloth and edge 
of hem turned. There are several methods of hemstitching, 
but this is the most simple. Double hemstitching is made 
by catching the same bundle on the opposite side. The 
number of threads taken in a bundle will depend on the 
coarseness of the material. 

Couching and applique. — Designs of contrasting colors 
can be cut from the material and applied to other fabrics 
with an overstitch taken around a couching cord placed at 
the edges of the figure. Couching is also used around the 
outline of designs without applique. The cord, which is 
drawn through a hole in the fabric made with a stiletto, 
follows the outline and should be kept perfectly flat. The 



I 




Fig. 117. — Articles showingr nso of embroidery stitches. 



266 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

stitches holding the cord are taken from right to left. The 
needle is slanted, and in taking each new stitch the needle 
is placed directly opposite the spot where the thread was 
just drawn. This makes straight stitches at right angles to 
the cord and holds the cord and edge of applied material both 
in place (see Fig. 118). 

A USEFUL EMBROIDERY EQUIPMENT 

Small, sharp-pointed scissors. 

A smooth thimble. 

Princess embroidery hoop. 

Embroidery standard for holding hoop. 

Needles — crewel, round-eyed, and sail. 

Embroidery magazines for designs and stitches. 

Carbon paper, perforating machine, stamping powder. 

A FEW USEFUL SUGGESTIONS FOR APPLYING THE 
ABOVE SKETCHES IN COMBINATION 

Good designs are absolutely necessary in order to get good 
effects. It is wise to prepare these with the aid of the art 
instructor and suggestions found in embroidery and other 
magazines. In this way it is possible to prepare designs es- 
pecially executed for the placing of certain stitches. Designs 
for dress embroidery especially must be carefully planned for 
placing and stitch. They can be transferred with carbon 
paper, or if the school has a perforating machine, the design 
can be perforated and transferred by rubbing stamping pow- 
der over it and then pressing with a hot iron. 

1. A child's bib (see Fig. 117). — This is made from a 
small piece of huckaback 12'' wide X 16'' long. The design 
of tree and rabbits was first transferred and then outlined with 
the outline stitch in dark blue D.M.C. cotton. Two rows 
of plain outlining form a frame about the picture. The back- 




Fig. 118. — Articles showing use of embroidery stitches. 

267 



268 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

ground of running stitch was put in by catching the surface 
threads of the toweling. Simple featherstitch was used to 
hold the hem at edge. The neck was bound with white 
tape, which forms the tie ends, and the neck band feather- 
stitched. This article gives practice in making three stitches. 

2. A simple cover for porch cushion (see Fig. 118) can 
be made of Russian crash. A strip 1 yard long and about 
16 inches wide will make one of good proportions. Hem one 
end with i" hem and other with V\ Fold so that the one- 
inch lies on the half-inch hem. Baste carefully all around 
edge through two thicknesses. The cushion cover should be 
so folded that the opening where hems overlap is four inches 
from one end. The blanket stitch in block pattern is worked 
all around the edges on four sides and holds the two sides of 
the cushion together. It is completed with snaps sewed on 
the hems and can be stuffed with excelsior or feather cushion 
for porch use. Simple table runners and covers can be deco- 
rated at the edge with this stitch in same or different arrange- 
ment. The cushion in illustration is worked with a mercer- 
ized brown cotton (called " Poseidon ") to harmonize with 
the linen crash. 

3. Napkin ring (see Fig. 117). — This is made of apiece 
of white linen 8'' long X 2}'' wide finished. Mark the scal- 
lops with a thimble or spool and work the blanket stitch 
close. D.M.C. embroidery cotton No. 25 can be used, or 
finer if linen is fine. Finish with loop and wash button and 
with or without initials in cross or satin stitch. The scallop 
can be run or stuffed with chain stitch before scalloping with 
blanket stitch. See also initial on towel for satin stitch. 

4. Towel with lace insertion. — Large towels may be made 
from toweling 24 or 27 inches wide. One and one fourth 
yards will make a good sized towel. Cut from each end a 
piece 7 inches in depth and full width. At the ends of long 



EMBROIDERY 269 

strip hemstitch one-inch hems. The seven-inch pieces can be 
turned to form double hemstitched ends of two inches wide 
toward bottom and one inch wide toward lace. Put together 
with bands of crocheted lace. This makes excellent practice 
in hemstitching (see Fig. 117). 

5. Three guest towels (Fig. 117). — (a) The towel with 
cross-stitch lettering is made from a piece of toweling 16 
inches wide and 27 inches long. The hemstitched hems are 
\\ inches wide, and a row of drawn work f inch wide is 
made at one end and \ inch wide at the unlettered end. 

(6) The second guest towel shown (Fig. 117) is made of 
a piece of striped toweling 16 inches wide and 27 inches long. 
The ends are turned with narrow hem and a blanket stitch 
taken over the hem. Stitches about J inch apart. The 
crocheting is caught in this blanket stitch. The band with 
crocheted initials is put in in the same way. 

(c) Hemstitched towel with cross-stitch border of flower 
pots (see Fig. 117). Huck toweling 16 inches wide and f 
yard long. Jenny Brooks patterns and colored D.M.C. 
cotton were used. Hems at ends are one inch hemstitched. 

6. Linen bag with cross-stitch design (see Fig. 119). — 
The old-fashioned smooth-finished brown linen was used for 
bag in illustration. A piece 28 inches long and 10 inches 
wide makes one of good proportions. Simple seams sewed 
with stitching stitch were made at sides, after cross-stitch 
designs were worked across one side of the bottom. Colored 
D.M.C cotton and Jenny Brooks patterns were used. 
Measure hem for top two inches. Before hemstitching work 
row of cross-stitch across top, placing it so it will appear 
near top of finished bag. Then turn and hemstitch so no 
threads of wrong side show. Line with batiste of cream-color 
so that the seams of inner bag are turned in towards seams 
of outer bag. Catch with hemming stitch to the hemstitch- 



270 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

ing with same brown thread. Any kind of cord can be 
crocheted and sewed below hemstitch for drawing ap, or 
rings placed for cord. 

7. Table runner with cross-stitch border across ends and 
sides (see Fig. 119). Gray tan linen If yards long and 14 
inches wide. Hemstitch both ends, allow 3-inch hem. 
Jenny Brooks patterns and D.M.C. colored cotton thread 
were used. Border is placed near the edge. 

8. Oval centerpiece with applique (see Fig. 118). — This 
piece for library table is of a good quality of Russian linen 
crash worked in colored linen thread and with pieces of colored 
linen cut out and applied in design. The pieces of the de- 
sign are held in place with blanket stitches worked close to- 
gether around edges of design in an irregular and regular 
height. The oval is 18'' wide and 21" long. A narrow hem 
was placed around edge and a very close featherstitch in 
blue linen floss used to hold the hem. This row of feather- 
stitch appears very solid and is outlined on both sides with 
outline stitch to make a band. 

9. Waist protector (Fig. 117). — One yard or square of 
cheesecloth or silkoline. Hem turned and basted all around 
square and catch stitch used to hold in place. Cut hole in 
center for hook of waist hanger and bind with ribbon. 

10. Memorandum desk-pad (Fig. 117). — Made from 
brown linen with design in chain stitch. The cardboard 
back of the pad is covered on both sides with brown linen 
overhanded at edges. The top portion for holding pad was 
decorated first with chain stitch and the edges folded over 
pad at corners and overhanded to the covered back. The 
chain is worked in heavy brown linen floss and pencil 
attached with a. crocheted chain. 

11. Book cover. — Book or magazine covers of linen or 
crash make useful gifts. A piece of linen \ yard in length, 




Fig 119- — Articles showing use <>i "mbroidery stitches. 

271 



272 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

if about 22" wide, can be folded to make one of good shape 
(see Fig. 118). Hem all around four sides with \" hem. 
Fold over 1^' top and bottom. At sides fold about 2\" . 
Overhand lapped ends. Place design on front cover. The 
one in illustration is of gray-blue linen worked in two values 
of blue. Stitches used are satin, outline, and darning. 

12. Doilies and centerpiece with crocheted borders 
(see Fig. 118). — Made of brown linen. Edges turned and 
basted for first turn. Turned and hemmed for second turn. 
This care makes good, even edge. Blanket stitch is made in 
edge of the hem with stitches \" apart. Crocheting is caught 
in loops of blanket stitch. An easy way to cut circles the 
correct size is to take the three sized plates and place on 
cardboard ; mark with pencil and cut out patterns. 

13. Small doily (see Fig. 117). — Made of two thick- 
nesses of linen for asbestos mat between. Design in outline 
stitch in blue D.M.C. cotton. Centers of corner pieces of 
design darned and outlined. Blanket stitch in linen-colored 
floss at edge to hold two pieces together. Narrow lace over- 
handed around edge. Selvedge is used on one side of lin- 
ing piece where it is left loose. 

14. Small work basket (see Fig. 118). — Equipped with pin 
disk, emery, and needlebook with featherstitch design. 

15. Turnover collar (see Fig. 117). — Design worked in 
satin stitch. 

16. Cushion cover (see Fig. 117). — ^ Two circles, white 
linen, 1" in diameter. Scalloped edges with blanket stitch 
in white D.M.C. cotton. Initial worked in satin stitch 
(white). Eight eyelets \" spaced evenly \" from edge. 

17. Linen money bag. — This little case is very useful when 
one is travehng. It has an inner case of chamois which can 
be replaced, and the outer covering can be laundered. It is 
made of a piece of fine white linen 8 J" long X 4f" wide. 



EMBROIDERY 273 

Hemstitch across one narrow end f '' deep. Hem sides with 
fine hemming stitches ; hem I" wide on both sides. Shape 
the other narrow side and hem with same width hem. 
Featherstitch below hem. Fold and overhand sides. Place 
two buttonholes and two buttons (see Fig. 117). 

EXERCISES 

1. Bring from home samples of old hand embroideries of 
grandmother's time : samplers, lace collars, etc. Have school 
exhibit. 

2. Bring any samples of old textiles with good designs. If 
possible, mount for permanent school exhibit. 

3. Collect from cm*rent magazines good designs and suggestions 
for embroidery problems. File in classroom in systematic way 
with aid of household arts teacher. Such suggestions will be useful 
for the whole class and following classes. 

4. If museum is near, plan trip alone or with class to see old 
textiles, laces, and embroideries. Suggestions may be found for 
use in school. 

5. Bring in trial samples of five stitches described in the text. 

6. Plan with original design a Christmas or birthday gift costing 
only 15 cents, on which some of the embroidery stitches are to be 
used. 

7. Look up information about the Bayeux tapestry. 

8. Trace the historical use of some of our common embroidery 
stitches. 

9. Describe two ways of transferring designs. 

10. Name some of the common embroidery flosses and threads, 
and needles for carrying them. 



DRESS 

CHAPTER XVIII 
HISTORY OF COSTUME 

The history of costume from ancient to modern times forms 
a most interesting study to one considering the importance 
of dress and the adaptation of costume design to the in- 
dividual. Few appreciate the fact that apparently there 
is '' nothing new under the sun " and our present styles 
are adaptations of the dress of olden times. One should be 
able to recognize in modern dress the styles of the periods 
from which they were derived, and the study of costume 
should teach one to apply such knowledge in attempting to 
improve modern styles of dress. 

Much of the knowledge of very early costume has been ob- 
tained from the ancient hieroglyphics, paintings, illumina- 
tions, and sculptures. The old tombs with their designs 
have furnished a great deal, and we are indebted to the Egyp- 
tians, Grecians, Romans, Early Gauls, and Franks for much 
that is beautiful in costume. Regular fashion sheets, how- 
ever, have been in vogue only since about the time of the 
French Revolution, so this history from books does not date 
very far back. 

Egyptian costume. — The history of costume of any coun- 
try is always closely associated with the history of its politi- 
cal life. The Asiatic conquests made Egypt politically su- 

274 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 



275 



preme, and with the new era of luxury the earlier simplicity 
of dress gave way to more attention to the outward appear- 
ance. We are indebted to Egypt for good color, design, and 
ornament. 

The costume in Egypt during the early dynasties was 
simple and the material very coarse. Hieroglyphics of that 
period show the men wearing a short skirt made of stiff, coarse 
material, which was practically a loin cloth. The waist 
was omitted. There was some variation of this in relation 
to classes. Among the upper 
classes the skirt was made to 
stand out in triangular form 
in front. During a period of 
some two or three hundred 
years following, changes took 
place and the costume devel- 
oped. The skirt apparently 
lengthened and widened, the 
materials were more transpar- 
ent and less stiff. From the 
IVth to the XVIIIth Dynasty 
the dress of the women was a 
straight, tight tunic of diaph- 
anous material kept up by 
means of braces over the 
shoulders and exposing the 
breasts. Servants wore a short 
skirt for freedom of movement, 
leaving the upper portion of the body bare. A very interest- 
ing fact is that the men's costume during this period showed 
many changes. The thin material of which the costumes 
were made led to the adoption of an underskirt. Beginning 
with the XVIIIth Dynasty a distinct change may be traced 




Fig. 120. — Egyptian costume. 



276 . SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

— the shirt or waist was added. This garment opened on 
the right side and had a sleeve for the left arm ; the under- 
skirt was changed in length and the outer skirt looped or 
draped to show it. This was probably the beginning of 
draperies. During the XlXth Dynasty this puffing was 
omitted on the outer skirts, both were often full and 
plaited, and about the XXth Dynasty panels or aprons 
were added for ornamentation (see Fig. 120). Garments 
became more numerous; mantles and capes were worn and 
flowing sleeves and plaited skirts apparently adopted. Elab- 
orate headdresses, made necessary by the great heat of the 
country, were an important part of the costume. Their 
decoration and the color and ornamentation, which included 
the use of the lotus flower, the asp, and many other interesting 
symbols, offer much which is beautiful in design and worthy 
of adaptation in our present costume. 

Greek costume. — The Grecians in their dress improved 
on the ideas acquired from the East and adapted them to 
their needs and social life. The women of Early Greece wore 
rather tight-fitting waists, — somewhat like the kimono waists 
of to-day, — ^with full skirts. Illustrations show that the 
garments of the men were long tunics and mantles. When 
we speak of the " Greek dress," with its charm and simphcity 
of line, we do not mean this early costume. 

The Greek dress of men and women did not differ in prin- 
ciple, but the women made certain additions, such as veils 
and ornaments for the hair. 

There were two garments in the costume, the chiton or 
dress, and the mantle, called the himation. The Greek 
women did their own weaving and each garment as woven 
was complete, for it was worn without being cut and sewed, 
simply held together, when arranged, with clasps or pins. 
Authorities differ as to whether the garments were all sewed 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 



277 



or all pinned, or some sewed and some pinned. The ques- 
tion remains unsettled. The Doric chiton differed from the 
Ionic in being simpler. It was scant and fell in a few large 
folds. The material was rather heavy. The Ionic appeared 
more elaborate, for it was made of much thinner m_aterial 




Fig. 121. — Grecian costume of 
mourning woman. 




Courtesy of Liberty Theater. 

Fig. 122. — Showing 
the contrast to 
Grecian costume 
which conforms to 
lines of the figure. 
Period of 1885. 



and a very large oblong, so that the full- 
ness arranged itself in many small folds. 
The general shape of both was the same 
— rectangular. The Doric dress was 
about afoot longer than the person was tall 
and as wide as the distance from tip to tip of the hands with 
arms outstretched. The foot of extra length was folded over, 
and the whole piece doubled in the center and folded about 
the body. It was pinned together on each shoulder, so the 



278 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

garment remained open on one side. A girdle bound the 
waist and the fullness of cloth concealed the opening. If 
the garment was too long, the extra length was allowed to 
blouse over the girdle. The Ionic, while the same shape, was 
much larger. 

The outer garment was cut either rectangular or square 
as the fancy of the wearer dictated. The women usually 
arranged theirs more elaborately. The regular manner of 
wearing was this : the upper left-hand corner was brought 
over the left shoulder and tucked under the arm ; the other 
upper corner was brought around under the right arm, 
draped across the body, and thrown over the left shoulder. 
This completely covered the body and permitted only the 
right arm to be free. This arrangement caused the mantle 
to fall in many folds and gave grace and dignity to the figure. 
(See Fig. 121 for the graceful folds.) 

The men wore their hair rather long and the women ar- 
ranged theirs in a simple knot at the back. This was 
adorned often with diadems, fillets, and jeweled ornaments. 
The head covering was the veil or a part of the mantle. 

Roman costume was adopted from the Greeks. For men 
the tunic or undergarment worn was somewhat like the 
Greek chiton. The toga, the national dress, was the outer 
garment or mantle. Women wore the " palla " and " stola." 
The stola was a long tunic with a dark border of ornamenta- 
tion or fitted piece at the bottom. It usually had sleeves. 
The palla was the mantle, used in many cases, like the 
Grecian himation, as a head covering. The toga for the 
Roman citizen was white and made of fine, expensive material, 
but the color was varied for generals and emperors. It was 
a piece of woolen material generally elliptical in shape and 
arranged somewhat as the Grecian himation according to 
fashion or the taste of the wearer. The outer garment of 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 279 

the poorer classes was made of heavier, more somber woolen 
material. Roman costume was more ornamented than the 
Grecian and fuller in drapery. In 55 B.C. Caesar conquered 
the Gauls, who in time became Romanized. It is interesting 
to trace the development of the costume of the early Gauls. 
Their painted and tattooed bodies of early times, the skins of 
animals, the hip aprons, were all succeeded later by the 
tunic, trousers, and mantle which they wore when conquered. 
If they became Roman citizens, the toga was permitted. 
Their garments were rich in beautiful ornamentation of em- 
broidery and color worn with a great deal of barbaric jewelry. 
After the complete conquest of the Gallo-Romans by the 
Franks in the fifth century and the establishment of the 
French kingdom, a combination of Roman, Gallic, and 
Frankish costume for men was adopted, consisting of a tunic, 
short trousers, leggings, and a mantle, the last varying in 
size according to use. 

French costume. — The eighth century was practically 
the beginning of French costume, and among the higher 
classes there was some variety of dress. The women wore 
two tunics. The under one was straight, long, and narrow, 
and the outer full and short. Mantles and bands on the 
gowns were also worn, and veils, of which they were very 
proud. The costume of the men was much as before. 
Jewels and embroidery were used for decoration on all the 
garments. Under Charlemagne, 768-814, there were edicts 
against luxury. Later the materials worn were heavier. Men 
wore the inner garments of linen and the outer tunic of wool 
bound with silk, and the mantles, short for everyday life, 
but long for ceremony. With the beginning of the age of 
chivalry (eleventh century), silks, cashmeres, and velours 
were introduced by the returning crusaders. Buttons ap- 
peared for the first time. Men adopted garments which were 



280 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

long and full, making them look much like the women, who 
also added fullness to their costumes. Veils were shorter 
and bands were worn around the head by the women. 

The last of the middle ages, while the Hundred Years' 
War was going on, garments were more fitted and often made 
of two colors. The tunic was called a surcoat. It was usu- 
ally made without sleeves and worn over a closely fitting 
under dress, which had long, close sleeves. 

At the last of the fourteenth century came a period of lux- 
ury. The garments for men were characterized by the 
doublet and hose, the latter being trousers and stockings in 
one. The sleeves of the doublet were large and often reached 
to the ground. This century is noted for its eccentricities 
of dress. The very pointed shoes and high, pointed head- 
dress harmonized with the turrets and towers of the Gothic 
architecture of that period. In the fifteenth century, during 
the reign of Louis XI, dress was more simple for both men and 
women, and under Louis XII, influenced by Queen Anne of 
Brittany, dress although of exceedingly rich materials showed 
more dignity, simplicity, and charm than ever before. At 
the death of Charles VIII, whom Anne had first married, 
black for mourning was introduced by her. She was also 
responsible for the close-fitting headdress, which she brought 
from her own country. The French costume of the last of 
the fifteenth century was characterized by the use of rich 
materials, bright colors, and greater dignity and grace of line. 
It lacked the eccentricities of the former period and marked 
the beginning of the French Renaissance, which bloomed in 
all its glory under Francis I a few years later. 

The sixteenth century, the period of the Renaissance, is 
marked by a great change in dress. Many innovations 
were introduced; distinctly different garments were worn 
by men and women. This period saw the beginning of 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 281 

crinoline, of hoops and corsets for women. They wore a 
chemise of linen, a corset not boned like the corset, of to-day, 
but made of several thicknesses of heavy material fitting the 
figure very closely, a hoop of heav}^ canvas, and over these a 
bodice with pointed waistline, front panel to cover the hoop, 
and a dress or robe which fell in tube-like folds to the floor. 
The headdress was still small. The men wore a chemise, 
a heavily embroidered doublet, short, full trousers, hose, and 
a mantle with big sleeves. The garments of both men and 
women were much slashed, and contrasting colors were in- 
troduced. Henry II married an Italian princess, Catherine 
de' Medici, who brought the corset from Italy ; also introduced 
the ruff, which became exceedingly popular and was worn by 
both men and women. 

During the reign of Henry II and his sons, Francis II and 
Charles IX, costume, while elegant and richly embroidered, 
was less slashed and the general lines were simpler. However, 
Henry III, aided by his sister. Marguerite of Valois, en- 
couraged elaborate dress, and many men adopted feminine 
fashions, wearing enormous ruffs and tight corsets. 

During the reign of Henry IV and Marguerite de Valois 
the hoop skirt, formerly A-shaped, was changed and with 
the aid of pads became barrel-shaped and so large that the 
arms rested upon it. The waists were smaller and more 
pointed and padded and puffed ; sleeves with very large ruffs 
completed a ridiculous silhouette. The corset had become 
a true instrument of torture, as is attested by the models in 
museums, and very small waists were the fashion. 

The reign of Louis XIII and Anne of Austria brought a de- 
cided change. Spanish fashions replaced Italian ones for 
women. Hoops, paddings, and ruffs were discarded and the 
costume became more graceful. The overskirts were draped 
to show the under, and bodices were no longer exceedingly 



282 * SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

tight and pointed. Sleeves were large with deep cuffs. The 
collar was flat instead of arranged as a ruff, and the hair was 
done low, with curls about the face. 

Similar but more elaborate styles were worn during the 
reign of Louis XIV. Among the accessions were small muffs 
for both men and women. Gowns showed again the pointed 
waistline ; they had very low necks and short sleeves ; no 
hoops were worn, but skirts were much draped, and stiff mate- 
rials worn at the back marked the introduction of the bustle. 
Much lace and ribbon were used for decoration on waists and 
skirts. About 1680 a new headdress was introduced and re- 
mained in favor thirty years. The story told is that a lady 
of the court had lost her hat and had used her garter, made 
of lace and ribbon, to bind her hair. The king complimented 
her, and immediately her example was followed, and an enor- 
mous headdress was introduced that sometimes reached 
two feet in height. In 1711, just before the end of Louis 
XIV's long reign, hoops were again revived and soon became 
very large. They were called " pannier " and lasted until 
the French Revolution. 

The eighteenth .century was characterized by its grace. 
The charming " watteau " costumes and the lovely pompa- 
dour silks were worn with the " pannier," which constantly 
increased in size. Gowns were much decorated with lace, 
ribbons, puffings, and flouncings, but lacked the heaviness 
which had marked the profuse ornamentation of the preced- 
ing century. Beautiful but tragic Marie Antoinette next 
occupied with Louis XVI the tottering throne of France and 
became absolute queen of fashion (see Fig. 123). Under 
her sway enormous hoops and equally enormous headdresses 
were worn. The watteau fashions were still in vogue, but 
only for informal occasions. Near the end of the century, 
as the Revolution was beginning, English fashions were 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 



283 



adopted — the waistcoat and redingote with triple lapels, 
wide collars, and large hats. 

Fashions changed rapidly during the ten years of the French 
Revolution. At first styles and materials became simpler, but 
with the Directorate (1795-1799) there came an unexpected 
reaction. Soft, 
transparent materials 
were used, and the 
Greek and Roman 
costumes were copied 
by women but in 
an exaggerated way, 
while the men wore 
large cravats, lapels, 
and collars in imita- 
tion of the English. 
By 1799, at the be- 
ginning of the con- 
sulate, the ancient 
costumes were still 
being copied, but in 
a more modest way. 
Transparencies were 
no longer worn. 
Shawls were intro- 
duced from Egpyt 
and costumes were 

simpler (see Fig. 124) . The costumes of the time of Napoleon 
and Josephine (1804-1815), which we now call Empire, were 
revivals of the same Greek fashions (see Fig. 125). The 
dresses had short waists, long skirts, low necks, and 
usually short, puffy sleeves. With these transparent shawls 
were used. 




Fig. 123. — Marie Antoinette. 



284 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



The period of 1815-1830, called the Restoration, was 
marked by the return of stays or corsets. Fashions were 
exceedingly ugly; street dresses were long and ball gowns 
were short ; both were elaborately trimmed. Hair dressing, 
which had been simple under the Empire, now became ab- 
surd, and it is said that during these fifteen years 10,000 differ- 
ent shapes in hats and bonnets appeared, all very ugly. 





Fig. 124. — Costume of period of 
Louis XVI. Directoire, 1798-1799. 



Fig. 125.— Ball costume of 1800- 
1801. (Empire.) 



Later, gowns were cut with low necks and long shoulders. 
Small waists and large, bell-shaped sleeves were in vogue. 
The period around 1850 is marked as one of luxury and ex- 
travagance of rich trimmings and materials (see Fig. 126). 
In 1854 hoops had returned. The polonaise was introduced 
with triple flounces on skirts. From that time to about 1870 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 



285 



there followed a period of luxury and hideous costumes for 
women. There were many changes with flounces and wide 
circular wraps. Hoop skirts of steel and crinoline were much 
used, and violent color contrasts were common. By 1870 
skirts became smaller, hoops disappeared, and we find the lines 




Fig. 126. — Costume of period about 1850. 



of gowns more modest and dignified, following more the out- 
line of the figure. Exaggeration and vulgarity were no 
longer prevalent. From then to 1880 dress was more simple 
and graceful. Gloves were generally adopted and materials 
were many, rich, and beautiful. From 1880-1900 there was 
greater originality de\^loped in dress and more good taste. 



286 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Bustles and pads were common for a time (see Fig. 122), 
'' leg of mutton " sleeves and boleros were at times popular, 
but it was a period of improvement. During the last ten 
years, dress has generally been simpler, more beautiful, and 
in better taste. The changes have been many, but the novel- 
ties have not lasted long. More intelligence and thought have 
been given in the adaptation of the best of the costumes of 
the past to the needs of to-day. 

Thus we have a story of progress from the tattooing and 
decoration of the body of primitive man to the various com- 
binations in color and form of modern dress. The tendencies 
of other generations can be studied in dress as well as in 
architecture and language. Certain tendencies in dress, 
characterized usually by flowing robes, have been noted 
in days of peace, while girdled garments of close cut were 
preferred by the warlike nations. In this history of dress, 
color has always played an important part, and Southern 
Europe has in its dress been characterized by its harmonious 
masses of color. Rank and power have been shown by dress ; 
the ladies, the cavalier, the court fool, the judge, the monk, 
the maid, all varied the styles in relation to their posi- 
tion. The ceremonials of royalty, the pageants, and dis- 
plays were all rich in color and variety of dress, — a 
constant panorama. In modern dress many individual 
distinctions have been lost, and with them much that was 
beautiful has passed away. Intelligent thought and art are 
continually reviving from the past styles those adapted to 
modern needs. 



HISTORY OF COSTUME 287 

EXERCISES 

1. Of what value is the study of the history of costume? How 
has much of the knowledge of early costume been obtained ? Of 
later costume ? 

2. What were the characteristics of Egyptian costume? What 
use is made to-day of Egyptian contributions to costume ? 

3. What is meant by the charm of Greek dress ? Describe the 
two principal garments. What was the Roman toga ? 

4. Describe the innovations in costume of the period of the Ren- 
aissance. What were the styles of the time of Louis XIV ? De- 
scribe the changes in fashion during the ten years of the French 
Revolution. 

5. Trace the influence of Greek costume during the various 
periods of dress. What has this study to do with modern dress 
designing ? 



CHAPTER XIX 

COSTUME DESIGN 

The importance of artistic dress. — The subject of dress 
is one of importance. Our garments are not a meaningless 
covering; they speak loudly for us or against us, not only 
to our friends but to the most casual observer. They have 
the power to make us look conspicuous, absurd, undignified, 
and to magnify our physical imperfections. They have also 
the power to make us feel comfortable and at ease. The 
consciousness of a costume which is appropriate and becoming 
tends to lend added charm and grace to the figure and develop 
an ease of manner that enhances the individual charms. 
Notice the lack. of self-respect and charm in the slovenly, 
untidy, unbecoming attire of some women. Garments have 
also the power to caricature. A really well-dressed woman is 
never conspicuous. Young girls in learning to plan their 
wardrobes and in selecting styles and materials for hats, 
gowns, and wraps should study carefully the requirements 
of dress and learn to adapt the prevailing styles to their in- 
dividual charms and defects. It is worth while to study 
the modeling of the face and the lines of the form to make 
the best use of our possibilities in every way — to do justice to 
ourselves in the selection of clothing, in personal cleanliness 
which is beauty, and in the arrangement of the hair. It is 
woman's duty to be as beautiful as possible, and " fine 
feathers make fine birds '' if the '' feathers " have been 
adapted to the lines, coloring, hair, and silhouette of the in- 
dividual. The costume should be considered as a beautiful 

288 



COSTUME DESIGN 289 

painting or work of art and much thought should be given to 
choosing wisely in order that this added beauty may be given 
to friends and the world. Every girl has an individual style 
that should be studied and carefully developed. These being 
the facts, we should use intelligent thought in making our 
costume serve us. 

The requirements of dress. — From the artistic standpoint 
the first question to be asked in regard to a costume is, does it 
to the greatest possible degree enhance the charm of the 
wearer? Of the truly artistic costume it will not be said 
" what a beautiful gown that woman is wearing," but " what 
a beautiful woman." In this desirable result the gown plays 
a large part. A gown may be beautiful in itself but so strong 
in its color or so striking in its design that it asserts itself 
above the wearer with unpleasant results. Some can wear 
successfully more striking costumes than others. With 
colorless hair, faded eyes, and an insignificant figure, it is an 
easy matter to don a gown that will cause the wearer to 
sink into insignificance, while the same gown on a woman 
of strong characteristics, of dark hair, and strong color might 
keep its proper secondary place. If the gown keeps a sub- 
ordinate place, it must be harmonious and restful in color 
and design, for ugly, inharmonious elements attract the at- 
tention and annoy the eye. Before selecting conspicuous 
plaids or using violent color contrasts (which if used in large 
masses are usually unpleasant), it is well to consider this 
principle, bearing in mind that if the costume is to be pleasant 
to look upon, or if it is to hold the eye pleasurably, for any 
length of time, it must be entirely free from disturbing and 
unrelated elements. 

Unity. — A second point for consideration is that of unity, 
for no costume will be successful that violates this principle. 
Not only must the hat and gown have unity, but the woman 
u 



290 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

and her costume must be so closely connected in a fine rela- 
tion of line and color that they are no more to be separated 
than a bird from its feathers. In whatever nature clothes, we 
find this unity. The subordinate relation of the costume to 
the wearer and the unity of the whole is a result of the study 
of art principles ; for dress design is first of all an art problem. 
Like all objects, costumes have shape, lines, dark and light, 
and color. When these are finely related, we have the artistic 
costume ; when not, the commonplace. 

As the outline or silhouette of the figure is seen by a greater 
number of people than the lines within the costume, it is of 
first importance that the outline be pleasing. The human 
figure with its matchless lines and subtle curves possesses 
the greatest beauty in creation. In judp;ing the silhouette 
of a woman as she appears on the street, compare the 
outline, as it is presented, with that of the human figure. 
While it may not be desirable that its lines reproduce those 
of the figure, yet they must not contradict or falsify them, 
but be in harmony and all " sing together." In the outline 
of the costume, the lines must flow rhythmically one just into 
another and not present a series of jerks and angles. A thin 
neck, for instance, should not be emphasized by the de- 
collete gown, French necks, and Dutch collars, which draw 
attention to the hard lines of the throat. " Improvements " on 
the feminine figure, such as bustles, hoops, puffs, and pinched 
waists, have not only failed to add either to its beauty or grace, 
but have given the figure a silhouette broken, angular, and 
without rhythm or charm (see Fig. 122). The figure must 
also present a balanced silhouette. In this respect, too, con- 
sider the figure itself, remembering that it is created for 
movements and must preserve a balance in action. As 
figures differ in their proportions, the matter of balance is an 
individual problem. Usually a small hat presents a better 



COSTUME DESIGN 



291 



balance than a large one when worn with a short, close-fitting 
walking skirt, because the short skirt apparently decreases 
the height of the figure, and also because there is insufficient 
width at the base to balance the width of the large hat (see 
Fig. 127). The large hat is usually best adapted to the long 





Fig. 127. — Showing difference in balance of large and small hats with 

short skirts. 



skirt, which adds to the apparent height of the figure. Such 
a hat is even better balanced by a gown with a train to broaden 
the foundation of the figure. As the first consideration in 
the selection of a hat should be its becomingness to the figure, 
it should be selected when standing at a little distance from 
a long mirror, and when wearing the costume for which it is 



292 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

designed, in order that the figure may make a pleasing and 
well-balanced outline. The hat itself ought always to appear 
to be balanced on the head both in shape and in placing of 
the trimmings. A hat with feathers or other trimmings 
massed on one side should have extra emphasis in width or 
in turn of the brim on the other, to preserve this balance, that 
it may appear poised on the head and not held in place only 
by the use of hat pins. 

A good design in costume, as in all design, has a fine relation 
of spaces. The surface of the gown is broken into spaces by 
lines — bands of trimming, rows of buttons, seams, etc. 
For an artistic result there must be a plan, an idea carried 
out in the entire costume to give an orderly arrangement of 
these lines. Lines of equal strength running in various 
directions without ''rhyme or reason," beginning nowhere 
and ending nowhere, will never produce an artistic result. 
For example, a gown which has a band of trimming arranged 
in points on the skirt, placed horizontally on the sleeves, and 
in a curve around the yoke, presents a disorderly design, 
confusing to the eye. If the band on the skirt were placed 
horizontally, corresponding with those on the sleeves, and the 
band outlining the yoke omitted, it would give a design, 
the principal lines of which make a repetition of horizontal 
lines, and the then inconspicuous line of the yoke would 
introduce a pleasing element of difference in so subordinate 
a relation as not to destroy the rhythm. The merit of the 
design would depend on the fineness of the relation of these 
lines and of the spaces made by them. 

Dark and light '' value." — A costume of black and white is 
very pleasing when well carried out. Black and white, being 
exact opposites, are not easily reconciled, and a '' spotty " 
effect is frequently the result of their combination; as, for 
example, in a costume where the gown is white, the hat, 



COSTUME DESIGN 



293 



gloves, and shoes black. In such a costume the eye jumps 
from one spot of black to another and finds no resting place 
(see Figs. 128 and 129). If with the white gown were worn 
white shoes and gloves, the black hat pleasingly trimmed 
with white, thus carrying the white into the region of the black 





Fig. 128. — Spotty effect. The eye 
jumps from one spot to another. 



Fig. 129. — This effect is more pleas- 
ing and is not spotty. 



and that of the black into the white by perhaps a black 
velvet bow at the throat, the darks would then be massed 
near the face, giving a spot of sufficient emphasis to hold and 
rest the eye. Another way of holding the black and white 
together is to introduce an intermediate step ; for example, 
a black skirt with a black chiffon waist made upon white 
gives a transition in " value " from the black skirt to the 
white of the yoke and collar, making the step from the white 
to the black less violent. An intermediate value may also 



294 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

be introduced by a touch of color. The black and the white 
should not be of equal areas ; let one or the other predominate. 
The black skix't and white shirt waist may be improved by 
a black tie, the two spots of black then predominating 
over the one of white. Pure white, although distinguished, 
lacks softness ; costumes in chalk, oyster, and so-called old 
ivory have a soft charm. In line, in values, and in color 
it must be made easy for the mind and the eye to grasp the 
intention, the plan; they must not be forced to jump from 
spot to spot. Pleasure will result from a restful harmony, 
but not from confusion. 

Value in color. — Value exists in all colors with their 
gradations from light to dark. With values closer together, 
the contrast is less striking than in black and white, and the 
harmony less difficult. 

In selecting the color for a costume consider first its 
wearer, for it is in the color, even more than the design, 
that the appearance may be improved or injured. A color 
should always be of sufficient " grajmess " to allow the 
individual characteristics to stand forth. This grayness 
varies according to the strength of the characteristics of the 
wearer, but it must always be sufficiently dull to form a 
background — a setting for the face and to show the figure 
to the best advantage. This question of color is one of 
great importance not only to the wearer but to all with whom 
she comes in contact. It is an outer expression of refine- 
ment and culture, and every girl should desire to have this 
true appreciation of color harmony. 

This brings us to a consideration of " chroma," or the 
intensity or brilliancy of a color. A full, intense note of 
color is the strongest, loudest possible expression of the color. 
A full red says " red " to the human intelligence as power- 
fully as red can be said ; it is insistent and exciting. Few 



COSTUME DESIGN 295 

people have sufficient vitality to stand against a red gown 
of full intensity. Only a person of striking characteristics, 
strong personality, and a small figure (as the mass of red 
would then be comparatively small) could hope to wear 
such a gown successfully. A red which has lost more than 
half its strength — a gray red, a dark red, or a light 
value of red (pink) — can be worn by a greater number of 
people, as it intrudes itself less forcefully and is less over- 
whelming. The same holds true of the other colors, only 
in a somewhat less degree, as red is the most aggressive, but it 
will always be found wise to use colors in full strength or 
nearly so only for touches of color on a gown which is in 
itself far from full intensity. Blue is a retreating color, 
cooling and quieting. Because of its retreating nature, blue 
is adapted to larger figures than red ; it is also suited to those 
not having pronounced features. It will be found that 
blues which have lost at least half of their strength, which 
do not say " blue " as strongly as it may be said, but rather 
suggest blue, are most interesting and becoming for the entire 
costume. Yellow is nearest light, and in combination with 
red, which gives orange, out of which come the browns, it is 
rich and warm in effect. Green, the combination of yellow 
with blue, combines the characteristics of each. It is light, 
and cheer, and calmness mixed. It is restful, soothing, and 
hopeful. More cheer will be found in the greens in which 
yellow predominates, and more calmness and poise in those 
dominated by blue. Violet gives the combination of the 
exciting quality of red, cooled and calmed by the blue. It 
is a color full of interest, particularly in its subdued tones. 

Color harmony. — In determining a color scheme for a 
costume, think about the dominant color and endeavor to 
bring the others into harmony with it. Whatever tends to 
bring colors together and to diminish opposition tends 



296 ' SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

toward harmony. Harmonizing colors, like harmony of 
line, is a matter of appreciation, but a few suggestions may 
be helpful. 

1. Contrasting colors may be harmonized in a subordinate 
relation, i.e. by using a large quantity of one and a small 
quantity of the other. Example : A violet gown with a 
touch of gold, or a yellow gown with a bunch of violets. 
The more subdued the tone in the larger mass of color, the 
greater the amount of the contrasting color that may be 
used, 

2. Touches of black will help to bring colors together. 

3. Combining colors of low intensity : The fire opal offers 
a suggestion for a pleasing color harmony with its one spot 
of bright color, while the others are subordinate in tone. A 
'' one mode " harmony, i.e. one color used in different 
values, is a safe harmony to use, but it is not of extreme in- 
terest. 

To emphasize a color, a touch of the same color may be 
added in another part of the costume. Blue eyes may be 
made to seem more blue by a touch of blue on the costume. 
A piece of somewhat faded embroidery may be brightened 
by an added touch of the same color. Another way of in- 
creasing the apparent strength of color is to use with it a 
complimentary color. Examples : red and blue ; green, 
yellow, and violet ; green and plum ; blue and orange ; 
purple and yellow green. Violet tends to make yellow hair 
look more golden, care always being taken to keep the violet 
of sufficiently low intensity not to overpower the color in 
the hair. " Red " hair is also made brighter by a blue 
costume. This combination should be sought or avoided, 
according to the strength of the color of the hair. Greens, 
particularly the soft greens, are very pleasing with auburn 
hair. 



COSTUME DESIGN 297 

Lines and colors for different figures. — In deciding what 
colors are best adapted to different figures, value, intensity, 
and the characteristics of colors must all be considered. A 
costume is occasionally designed for a special occasion, as 
are stage costumes, when the background against which it 
is to be seen is known, but the usual costume is worn on 
various occasions and seen against different backgrounds. 
The average background is of about middle value, i.e. about 
halfway between black and white, and is very gray. Black 
and white, therefore, being far remote from gray stand out 
strongly from the background ; black calls attention to its 
boundaries, and so should be worn only by those possessing 
good figures, while white tends to make the figure appear 
larger and as a mass. Blue, blue green, and blue violet, if 
about middle value and very '^ gray," as well as gray itself, 
are best adapted to stout figures, being retiring colors, and 
also much like the background against which they are seen ; 
they melt into it and so do not give prominence to the figure. 
A little brightness may be added by a small touch of brighter 
color to make the costume more becoming to the face. 
Such points of emphasis should be used through the center 
of the gown, that the eye may not be drawn to its bound- 
aries. It is generally understood that vertical lines tend to 
lengthen the figure, and, conversely, horizontal lines tend to 
shorten. This is only half the truth. A vertical movement 
tends to lengthen and a horizontal movement to shorten the 
figure (see Fig. 130). Example: a gown of broad-striped 
material may add to the height of the figure, but it will also 
broaden it, as the eye moves not up and down on the stripes, 
but horizontally along the repetition of the stripes, giving a 
movement from side to side and an apparent increase in 
width (see Fig. 131). A band of trimming on the bottom 
of the skirt may '' cut off " the figure, but a dozen bands 



298 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

placed horizontally on the gown, while adding somewhat 
to the width of the figure, will apparently increase the 
height. 

To obtain the greatest effect of height, place the longest 
possible vertical or slightly oblique line through the center 
of the figure, with no points of emphasis in the way of 
trimming on outer parts (see Fig. 130). To broaden the 
figure, emphasize the outsides of the sleeves, the sides of 




Fig. 130. — The effect of vertical Fig. 131.— The effect of horizontal 
movement in lengthening the ef~ movement in shortening figure as 

feet. eye travels from side to side. 

the skirt, outer parts of the shoulders, making such an ar- 
rangement of trimming that the eye will be carried across 
the figure. Boldness of design, conspicuous color combina- 
tions, large plaids, and broad stripes tend to increase the 
size of the figure. Quiet color in dress is an evidence of 
good taste. This taste should be trained early, for crude 



COSTUME DESIGN 299 

color habits are almost inexcusable. In combining colors 
the aim is to obtain the proper balance. 

Fashion. — In our costumes we should have a higher 
ideal than mere fashion. While we are willing to think for 
ourselves and to express our ideas freely on most subjects, 
in the matter of clothes we too often allow some one else to 
do our thinking for us. We follow the fashions blindly for 
fear that we will not look quite like everybody else. To be 
merely fashionable is to be of the thousands ; to wear artistic 
and individual costumes is to be well dressed. It is not for 
the benefit of womankind that the fashions are made to 
change so frequently, but to enrich manufacturer, modiste, 
and fashion-book maker. Fashion is also governed by 
traditions which determine many styles, as well as the com- 
petition of leaders of fashion who wish to display their 
wealth in this way. The love for adornment and display in 
the female sex — the desire to attract, to be beautiful — • is 
also responsible for many changes. Each generation is in 
the grip of social customs ; we submit unconsciously to the 
survivals of style. It is not a matter to be treated lightly, 
so much of health, comfort, and good looks depend on the 
garments we wear that they deserve intelligent thought. 

We are frequently unaware of how much our clothes 
hinder us in our daily tasks, so much disability comes below 
this level of our consciousness. The full, plaited walking 
skirts when too long require energy better devoted to some- 
thing else, in order to support them. Instead of mere novelty 
the attraction offered by dressmakers should be graceful, 
beautiful, and becoming garments. Change we want, but 
let us accept only such change as is for the better, either in 
the direction of comfort or beauty, or both. 

Simplicity. — A discussion of costume would be incomplete 
without a word on simplicity, for 99 out of every 100 cos- 



300 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

tumes are spoiled by a lack of it. Simplicity is not plainness, 
nor stupidity, but the intelligent omission of the superfluous. 
Being well dressed often means knowing what to leave off. 
Every bit of trimming, every line, every button or bow or 
feather either adds to the beauty of the costume or detracts 
from it. Because one band or bow is good it does not neces- 
sarily follow that ten are better. Imbecility of ornament, 
trimming without reason, spoils an infinite number of cos- 
tumes, but every bit of trimming that improves a costume 
fills a place that would be empty without it. It often seems 
as if women dress and purchase their costumes without 
looking in the mirror. The caricatures are so grotesque. 
Stout women, wearing gay colors, material with big figures, 
large picture hats, should know enough to avoid anything 
but the most simple lines, figures, and inconspicuous colors. 
No woman is well dressed in a costume which is exaggerated, 
and especially when it verges on lack of refinement. The 
too scant skirt, the very low-cut neck, or transparent skirt 
are all forms of exaggeration and they show extremely bad 
taste. 

A study of beauty, wherever it is found in painting, sculp- 
ture, architecture, or nature, will aid in its appreciation and 
so help in its application to the costume. Beauty will be 
found to be not necessarily the result of costliness but of 
artistic appreciation. Simplicity may help in selection of 
costume, so that the mad race of attempt to conform to style 
may not consume so much time and energy. 

Appropriateness. — If I were to mention a woman's 
" uglifiers," I should first suggest the inappropriate gowns 
and hats. Although a thing may be good in itself, it does 
not exist alone, nor is it seen alone, but in relation to its 
surroundings. A girl's light blue or pink satin " party 
gown " does not make a pretty " dress up " street or school 



COSTUME DESIGN 301 

dress. .Nor does a big hat loaded with ostrich plumes make 
an attractive morning hat. A girl is never well dressed if 
she wears anything which is too ultra for the life of the com- 
munity in which she lives. That which is appropriate for 
the formal city drawing-room reception is entirely out of 
place in a small town. Gowns should be appropriate to the 
occasions on which they are worn. The dress of linen or 
other wash material is most appropriate in every way for 
the sick room or the kitchen. The business girl's dress 
should be simple and adapted to her daily uses. Girls 
should early learn to criticize their own clothing in relation 
to its appropriateness to the time and place in which it is 
worn. Another '^ uglifier " is imitation. The shirt waist 
made in imitation of the more expensive waist, of coarse 
material covered with lace and cheap embroidery, is in bad 
taste. Far better and ^'smarter" is a plain, well-tailored 
waist that is all it pretends to be. Other imitations to 
be avoided are satins, ostrich plumes, laces, and jewelry 
of a cheap quality. Uncomfortable, untidy, soiled clothing 
is irritating and does not make for good nature and health. 
Clean, appropriate, neat clothing cultivates self-respect. 

The artistic gown, then, is appropriate to the occasion on 
which it is worn; it is of good material, neat, convenient, 
graceful, healthful, allowing for free movement of the body. 
It is free from superfluous trimming, it is restful to look at 
rather than disquieting, in color and design it is alluring 
and persuasive, not self-assertive ; it emphasizes in every 
possible way the charm and personality of the wearer. 
Such a costume requires intelligent thought and study, which 
is more than justified by the result. 

Jewelry, when worn thoughtfully, is adornment and often 
enhances the loveliness of a face. Selection should be care- 
fully considered in relation to the costume with which it 



302 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

will be worn, in order that it may not be simply a costly 
display, extremely vulgar. Not only the costume, but the 
individual charms and shortcomings, should be studied, and 
jewels worn that will add to the attractiveness of appear- 
ance. Young girls do not need jewels to enhance their 
charms when they are appropriately and becomingly gowned. 
Youth is charm. Jewels appeal because of their beauty, and 
when worn should be chosen in relation to the coloring of 
the wearer. Many of the semi-precious stones, although 
inexpensive, have true artistic charm and are beautiful 
both in color and setting. Such are entirely appropriate 
for girls. When the correct color combinations are made, 
such jewelry may add just the brilliant touch needed to 
complete the costume. The coloring of the jewels should 
be in harmony with the gown — corals with salmon rose, 
warm grays, and yellows. 

EXERCISES 

1. Why is the study of modern dress important to every girl? 
What are the requirements of dress ? 

2. What is meant by unity in relation to selection of hat and 
gown? 

3. What consideration should be given to silhouette in costume 
designing ? What is meant by balance in costume ? 

4. How is the surface of gowns broken by trimming? What 
principle must be kept in mind in planning the decoration ? 

5. How do dark and light values affect the appearance of a cos- 
tume? 

6. In what way does the color of a costume injure or improve a 
girl's appearance ? 

7. What is meant by color harmony in dress ? 

8. What lines and colors should be worn by a stout person of 
middle age of swarthy complexion and dark hair ? 

9. What do you mean when you say a person is "well dressed" ? 
10. Simplicity in dress should be the ideal. What can you do 

to achieve it ? What is "appropriateness" in dress ? 



CHAPTER XX 
THE HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 

The hygiene of clothing is very important, and no girl is 
well dressed who does not consider the relation of her clothes 
to health. No costume can be really artistic if it is un- 
hygienic, but not all hygienic clothing is artistic. One ele- 
ment of art is adaptation to use, and all clothing should be 
so carefully planned and studied that it serves in the best 
possible way. There have been numerous dress-reform 
styles started, many of which were freakish, but the aim of 
every girl in relation to dress should be to evolve for herself 
something simple that will not necessitate an undue amount 
of time and show, something pleasing and artistic in its 
adaptation to individual appearance, and comfortable 
enough to permit freedom. During the girlhood period of 
adolescence especially, clothing should permit this freedom 
so that the body may perform its functions properly. Few 
give any attention to it or realize that ill health is often the 
result of lack of thought in the protection of the organs of 
the body. Heat and energy are generated by the body and 
are necessary in order that the machinery may run properly. 
If the heat is dissipated too quickly by surfaces of the body 
being exposed, there is a waste of the energy which should 
go to provide for the necessities of the body. Very thin 
stockings, low shoes, low-necked dresses, scant clothing in 
winter have this effect. 

The purpose of clothing is primarily to protect the body 
from the cold and to maintain a constant body temperature. 

303 



304 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

It also serves as a protection against hard, sharp objects, 
although decoration is the most powerful and controlling 
factor in the selections of body coverings. Modesty also 
affects selection of covering and is controlled somewhat by 
custom. Clothing is healthful or non-healthful in form, 
pressure, and arrangement as controlled by these purposes 
of . decoration, covering, and protection. Individuals cannot 
entirely ignore fashion, but it should be controlled and 
adapted to healthful, artistic, appropriate uses. Pride 
should not be the only source of warmth. Selection of cloth- 
ing should be based on occupation, conditions of health, and 
requirements of age. In summer, clothing should not inter- 
fere with the dissipation of heat, but in winter it should pre- 
vent an undue loss of heat from the skin. Care should be 
taken to remove wet clothing as soon as possible, and to 
change the underwear worn next to the skin twice a week. 
Shoes should be chosen with the idea that they are to be 
adapted to use. Why should it be fashionable for a woman's 
foot to appear smaller than it really is? The wearing of 
tight, small shoes is a strain on the body and foot, and women 
toddle instead of walking with a free, easy spring. This 
deformation is as bad as that of the Chinese women, who 
used to bind and deform their feet because it was the custom. 
Shoes should fit the instep and heel snugly and should be 
straight on the inside line. The heel should be broad enough 
to balance the body properly and the soles thick enough to 
be impervious to dampness and substantial enough to walk 
on. The toes should have plenty of room for free move- 
ment. Why should a girl try to wear shoes that are not the 
shape of the foot with which nature endowed her ? It is not 
necessary to wear an orthopedic shoe if one has normal feet, 
but common sense should lead one to bear in mind the above 
suggestions. The choice of foolish footwear leads to dis- 



THE HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 305 

comfort and frequently to lack of efficiency. " Fallen arch," 
which is common among women, affects the whole nervous 
system. Many women suffer and are not conscious of the 
cause. 

Care should be taken to keep the feet dry. This is quite 
essential if women wish to keep well and be efficient. It is 
much cheaper to buy rubbers than to pay doctors' bills. 
Rubbers also protect the shoes and prevent the thread from 
rotting through being water soaked. 

Hats and hair. — The use of false hair is not now as prev- 
alent as it was a few years ago. It is fast falling into dis- 
use by those who wish to preserve health. Many diseases 
are communicated through it. Eczema, smallpox, and 
dandruff have been traced to false hair. The undue warmth 
resulting from false hair also affects the head and causes the 
natural hair to fall out. When one's hair begins to grow 
thin, a physician whose specialty is dermatology should be 
consulted. It is often the result of general ill health or from 
wearing the hat so much that the circulation is restricted 
and the head not sufficiently ventilated. A good tonic is 
to brush the hair every night with at least one hundred 
strokes. This keeps the hair .in good condition when one 
is in normal health. 

Hats when too large or heavy affect health. Much ner- 
vousness in women is due to the continuous expenditure of 
energy in balancing large, heavy hats, and sometimes the 
body comes to have an unnatural position because of the 
effort to balance and maintain the poise. A hat should rest 
lightly on the head and be large enough in head size to 
permit freedom of circulation. 

The corset. — Few young girls appreciate the necessity 
for careful consideration in the selection of the first corset 
or corset waist. The test for such a garment is that it 



306 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



should leave no marks on the body. Corsets cause an 
atrophy of the abdominal muscles, and if not properly fitted 
interfere seriously with the circulation of the blood and 
cause displacement of the viscera — when lacing is resorted 
to, the thorax is deformed and " uglified." These displace- 
ments, caused by ignorance, lead to the ill health and ineffi- 
ciency of about one half of the women. Corsets which give 

the figure an hour- 
glass effect cause 
pressure in the wrong 
place and do not per- 
mit of deep abdomi- 
nal breathing, which 
is essential to health. 
Any waist or corset 
may be unhygienic if 
it causes a downward 
pressure at the waist. 
The corset or waist 
should press upward, 
supporting the ab- 
dominal viscera. Ail 
bands about the hips 
or waist should be 
r^ver the corset. 
Tight bands or cor- 
sets interfere with the 
circulation and cut off the supply of blood needed by the brain 
and internal organs. The corset should fit snugly over the 
hips, but allow plenty of freedom at the waistline. Garters 
attached to corsets should not be so tight as to interfere with 
the circulation or bear downward. The corset should be 
fitted to support the organs. Most girls wish to preserve 




Fig. 132. — The victory of Samothrace. 



THE HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 307 

the lithe, graceful waistline with which nature has endowed 
them. Notice the beautiful hip and waist curves of the 
Venus de Milo, or the Winged Victory of Samothrace. Are 
they not more beautiful and artistic than the corset-made 
lines? Girls can preserve this vigorous, graceful form 
through proper exercise of the muscles at the natural joint 
— the waist. Fat easily accumulates around the waist 
muscles, and proper exercise and plenty of it will prevent 
this. The corset does not prevent this accumulation. 
Tennis, golf, gardening, hoeing, sweeping, horseback riding, 
mountain climbing, walking, all help to prevent the exces- 
sive development of fatty tissue. The waist may not then 
with proper development be called slender, but it is lithe 
and graceful like the beautiful ideals of the '' Venus " or 
'^ Victory" (see Fig. 132). 

Underwear. — Fatigue and ill health are often due to 
weight of clothing and to restriction of skin ventilation and 
circulation caused by certain fabrics. There is a close rela- 
tion between the regulation of bodily temperature and the 
texture and fibers of materials. Clothing should be adapted 
to climate and conditions under which it is worn. Under- 
wear coming next to the skin should be coarse in mesh to 
give plenty of air space, and should be easily cleansed. In 
the selection of underwear these hygienic properties of ma- 
terials should be studied. 

Life produces heat ; the average human body, even at 
rest, produces enough heat daily to raise forty pints of water 
from the freezing to the boiling point, and with exercise the 
heat production is greatly increased. The body must keep 
an even temperature to be in health. This temperature is 
98° F., and some heat must constantly be eliminated. The 
ehmination of body heat is accomplished by radiation, 
evaporation, and conduction. More than half is lost by 



308 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

radiation. The air and clothing surrounding the body cease 
to be cooler when the temperature is high, as in excessive 
summer heat ; the radiation from the body ceases and 
evaporation of perspiration takes place. When the air is 
very humid, evaporation is slow; when dry, evaporation 
takes place more quickly and bodily heat is reduced. Con- 
sequently, an excess of dry heat can be endured, while moist 
heat is oppressive. Conduction of bodily heat is favored 
when there is velocity of the air current and moisture. The 
wind in drying the moisture cools the underlying surfaces. 
This is the reason why very cold weather is so keenly felt 
in a moist climate and not as keenly in a dry one. 

The clothing worn is for protection against the changes 
in temperature, in velocity of air, and in humidity, and should 
be so constructed that there is no interference with elimina- 
tion of bodily heat nor too much elimination when it is 
necessary to conserve this heat. 

The body loses about three pints of water in twenty-four 
hours through evaporation ; humidity does not favor evapora- 
tion, consequently clothing which absorbs and retains much 
moisture is not as healthful as that which eliminates it more 
quickly. This process of absorption and elimination differs 
in various fabrics. It is quicker in linen than in other fabrics. 
Wool on a dry body, as on old people or on those who do not 
exercise very freely, feels warm and continues so as long as 
the evaporation of the skin is not in excess of the power of 
the woolen garment to absorb and eliminate it. If through 
physical exercise the amount of moisture is increased and 
the wool does not absorb it as fast as it is excreted, the air 
about the body will be moisture laden and evaporation inter- 
fered with. A bodily feeling of oppression will follow, due 
to the retention of the heat. Moisture and velocity of air 
favor conduction of heat ; therefore if the body is exposed to a 



THE HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 309 

draught under above conditions, the bodily temperature may 
be reduced too quickly. 

Elimination of heat takes place when the materials conduct 
it. The protection against too great elimination is favored 
by the porosity of materials. Air in the meshes offers this 
protection, for a still layer of air is not a good conductor of 
heat. A loosely knitted shawl is warmer under certain con- 
ditions than one which is more compact. The air spaces 
are ventilators as well as non-conductors. Two light-weight 
garments are warmer than one heavier one because of the 
layer of air between. Wool and flax both conduct heat, 
but wool more slowly. Porous wool feels warmer than a 
plain linen next to the skin. The radiation is about the 
same in both when the linen is made of the same porosity 
and air capacity as the wool. Wool is warm and irritating 
to many people. It is not as cleanly as some fabrics, for it 
absorbs the bodily excretions, and is not easily laundered. 
As it felts in shrinking, the air space between meshes is 
lessened. Loosely woven or knitted underwear with large 
air spaces is more hygienic than the closely woven. Many 
cotton garments are now woven loosely and so treated in 
manufacture that they absorb easily. Outing flannel with 
its large air spaces is consequently warm, but the ordinary 
kind is dangerous for underwear because it burns so easily.^ 
Peasants and some explorers in the far north wear next 
to the skin linen of a porous variety ; others wear wool. 
Some Eskimos wear cotton shirts under their furs. Silk as 
underwear is very pleasing and luxurious but too costly for 
most people. A combination of silk and wool is excellent 
but expensive. Silk and wool because of their physical 

^ A method for the permanent fireproofing of cotton goods has been devel- 
oped, but is not yet commonly applied. Persistent inquiry on the part of 
consumers will greatly aid the introduction of this important improvement. 



310 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

structure are able to care for the excretions and perspiration. 
Silk is more easily cleansed than wool. The great argument 
for wool is that evaporation is slow, and there is not the 
same danger as in rapid evaporation through cotton and 
linen of an undue reduction of bodily temperature. The 
selection of the kind of underwear will depend on conditions 
of health, climate, occupation, and age. Each must study 
those conditions and experiment until the most comfortable 
and satisfactory has been found. Union suits are by some 
considered more hygienic because an even layer of clothing 
covers the body instead of an uneven when the vest and 
underdrawers overlap about the abdomen. On the other 
hand, the extra warmth around the abdomen is often 
beneficial, some people finding it necessary to wear a flann^t;! 
band in addition to the usual underclothing. 

The outer garments for protection should be rather closelj 
woven so that the wind cannot penetrate and conduct the 
heat too rapidly. Heavy garments are a great burden and 
prevent freedom of action and efficiency. 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the purposes of clothing? How is health affected 
by bodily covering ? 

2. What controlling ideas should guide one in the selection of 
shoes ? Why should the feet be kept dry ? 

3. How may hats and false hair affect health? 

4. The corset is important. How should it be tested in selec- 
tion? 

5. What should guide one in the choice of underwear ? 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE ECONOMICS OF DRESS 

Many of the problems that confront the shopper are to 
be considered in the chapter on purchasing of household 
material (see Book II). There are a few things, however, 
that should be especially considered in the selection of 
materials for gowns. (1) A careful study of the whole ward- 
robe is necessary in order to determine the kind and number 
of gowns needed. This will- depend on the amount of money 
one can afford to spend for clothes and on the needs of the 
person ; in other words, the social demands of the community 
and the individual life of the girl. One engaged in business 
life will have different needs from the one who is the home 
maker. The first things to consider then in selection of 
materials are suitability and economy. It is more economical 
and advantageous to the woman of moderate income to do 
her shopping between seasons. If your income is limited, 
never buy things unless there is a particular need. Evening 
wraps lined with white satin are not apt to be economical 
expenditures for a woman of moderate means. 

(2) After the use has been determined and one knows the 
amount that can be expended, the selection of material for the 
gown should be appropriate to that use. It is inappropriate to 
wear silks and satins for work dresses about the house, neither 
would one select for street or business wear materials which 
are suitable only for reception or evening gowns. 

(3) One must also consider in selection whether one 
wishes to follow the demand of fashion and have new gar- 

311 



312 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

ments to meet the changes every few months. To do this, 
if one has a large amount to spend on clothing, good ma- 
terials can be purchased ; otherwise one must choose inexpen- 
sive ones and give no attention to the wearing qualities. 
If one attempts to follow the fads of fashion, there is likely 
to be undue extravagance. Exaggerated styles are not only 
conspicuous but short lived. If one's clothes must be worn 
for some time and remade, then the wearing qualities of 
materials should be carefully considered. A knowledge of 
textile materials and of their manufacture will be of value in 
selection. If one dresses conservatively and is not influenced 
by the frequent changes of fashion, one can afford better 
materials. This is usually a more economical method of 
dressing, and one is apt to appear always well dressed. 

(4) Color and design, as have already been suggested, must 
be borne in mind. Color should suit the individual and be 
pleasing to others ; and design should suit one's figure and 
style. 

The allowance and dress budget. — Many girls have an 
allowance to spend for dress. Some do not have to consider 
their expenses, and the bills are paid by father or mother. 
Others are engaged in business and anxious to make the 
amount of the income that can be spent on dress go as far 
as possible. It will be found worth while for every girl to 
keep a systematic account of her expenditures for clothing, 
whether she earns the money for it or not (see chapter 
on Household Accounts, Book II.) The reason for this is 
that one should early form the habit of planning and ex- 
pending so as to get the greatest amount of wearing value 
and satisfaction in return. When one does not know the 
amount that may be spent, one cannot weigh the relative 
satisfaction of different articles, but even without this knowl- 
edge, every girl will feel repaid to keep such accounts for a 



THE ECONOMICS OF DRESS 313 

certain period. As some clothing lasts more than one year, 
the average for three years should be taken to obtain the 
cost per annum for clothing. One should also remember 
that, as a rule, most clothing made at home by the girl or 
mother costs less and has a longer period of usefulness. If 
one has the time, it may not be necessary to purchase ready- 
made garments. Very often, however, it is more economical 
to buy the ready-made when one's time is well occupied 
and the saving of energy for the daily work must be con- 
sidered. The following budgets for expenditures for cloth- 
ing may be suggestive and help those interested in planning 
their wardrobes economically and healthfully. A girl with 
a limited amount to spend may learn, by taking thought, to 
spend that sum so as to be as well dressed for her income 
and needs as the woman of unlimited income in a different 
environment. The care given clothing has much to do with 
its length of life. Every girl should feel the responsibility for 
neatness of appearance and cleanliness. It costs money and 
energy to be clean, and this factor should be a guide in select- 
ing articles of clothing. Some women have, instinctively, 
an inborn sense of proportion and know how to dress, others 
must cultivate it. 

The following clothing budget gives an idea of what a 
girl can do with $65, if she makes some things herself.^ 

The average is taken for three years. The first year is 
naturally the highest, and in the second many articles can 
be used which were purchased the first. 

1 Perchance some may be skeptical about the possibihty of purchasing the 
following articles of clothing, averaging $ 65 per year. All of the articles men- 
tioned can be obtained from a reliable department store in New York, at 
the prices stated. Many girls can spend no more for clothing. The writer 
knows from her contact with girls that this is about the wardrobe selected. 
Sometimes gifts supplement what the girl is able to purchase and she may 
appear better dressed. 



314 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



Wardrobe — Cost averaging $65.00 per Year 

Planned for a girl who makes her own dresses and waists in 
spare hours, but buys most of her underwear. 

First Year 

Shoes, 2 pair, at $3.00 $6.00 

Rubbers, 1 pair .75 

Ties, 1 pair 2.00 

Gloves, kid, 1 pair 1.00 

silk, 1 pair, or 3 pair cotton, at $.25 .75 

woolen, 1 pair .50 

Hats, best winter hat 3.00 

best summer hat 2.50 

2 business hats, at $1.50 3.00 

Coats, 1 winter 9.00 

1 spring '5.00 

Dresses, 2 gingham, at $1.50 3.00 

1 cashmere 10.00 

2 cotton shirt waists 1.50 

1 dress skdrt 4.00 

1 woolen waist 2.00 

Handkerchiefs and collars 2.00 

Hosiery, 6 pairs, at $.25 1-50 

Underwear, 3 union suits, winter, at $2.00 6.00 

3 union suits, summer, at $.50 . . . . . . 1.50 

3 pairs drawers, at $.25 .75 

3 corset covers, at $.25 .75 

2 pairs of corsets, at $.75 1.50 

Garters .25 

2 flannelette skirts, at $.25 .50 

2 short white skirts, at $.50 1.00 

1 long white skirt, at $1.00 . . . . . •. . 1.00 

2 dark skirts, at $1.00 ........ 2.00 

3 nightdresses, at $.75 2.25 

Umbrella (gloria) 1-00 

$76.00 



I 



THE ECONOMICS OF DRESS 315 

Second Year 

1 pair shoes : . . $2.00 

1 pair slippers 1.50 

2 pair rubbers 1.50 

1 pair ties 2.00 

1 pair kid gloves 1.00 

1 pair silk gloves .75 

1 winter hat 3.00 

1 summer hat 4.00 

1 winter suit 16.00 

1 linen suit 5.00 

1 lingerie waist 3.00 

1 silk waist 4.00 

1 gingham dress 1.50 

2 cotton waists 1.50 

Collars and dainty linen 5.00 

1 dark petticoat 1.25 

1 white petticoat . . 1.50 

2 pair corsets, at $.75 1.50 

6 pair stockings 1.50 

Elastics .50 

Nightdresses, 2, at $.75 1.50 

2 chemises, at $.75 1.50 

2 drawers, at $.35 .70 

$61.70 
Third Year 

Umbrella 1.00 

Sweater 3.00 

6 pairs stockings 1.50 

1 pair shoes 2.50 

1 pair ties 2.00 

1 pair rubbers .75 

Remodeling hats 2.00 

Remodeling cashmere dress 3.00 

Organdie dress 6.00 

2 gingham dresses 3.00 

2 shirt waists 1.50 

1 walking skirt 4.00 

1 woolen waist , 2.00 



316 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

3 union suits .* $6.00 

3 union suits 2.25 

Petticoats 3.50 

Chemise and drawers 2.25 

Corsets and elastics 1.75 

Raincoat 5.00 

Small supplies 3.00 

$56.00 
Average of $64.57 per year. 

Wardrobe — Cost averaging $125.00 per Year 

A working girl earning $1000.00 spends one eighth, for clothing, 

which averages $125.00 per year. The first year the budget 
aggregates most. 

First Year 

4 summer undervests $.25 $1.00 

4 pair drawers 50 2.00 

4 corset covers .50 2.00 

2 pair corsets 1.50 3.00 

4 pair winter stockings 25 1.00 

4 pair summer stockings 25 1.00 

3 union suits (part wool) 1.50 4.50 

2 pair high shoes 3.50 7.00 

2 pair low shoes 3.00 6.00 

2 pair rubbers 75 1.50 

1 pair sandals .50 

3 nightgowns 1.00 3.00 

1 long kimono 2.00 

2 white skirts 1.00 2.00 

2 seersucker petticoats 85 1.70 

2 outing flannel petticoats 50 1.00 

1 black petticoat 1.50 

1 wool sweater 5.00 

1 rain coat (rubberized) 5.00 

1 umbrella (gloria) 1.50 

2 woolen waists (Scotch flannel) made at home . . . . 3.00 

1 wool dress skirt 4.00 

1 winter suit 18.00 

1 silk waist to go with suit for best 5.00 



THE ECONOMICS OF DRESS 317 

1 long coat $14.00 

2 winter hats 8.00 

2 summer hats 8.00 

1 simple silk dress for afternoon, made at home .... 15.00 

3 tailored waists 3.50 

2 white lingerie waists 3.00 

1 Indian head dress, made at home ........ 2.00 

1 linen skirt 3.00 

1 lawn dress, made at home 2.00 

Collars, ties, belts 3.00 

Gloves, 1 dogskin, 2 kid, 2 white cotton 5.00 

Handkerchiefs (8 for $1.00, plain linen) 2.00 

$150.70 
Second Year 

4 undervests $.25 $1.00 

4 pair drawers 50 2.00 

4 corset covers 50 2.00 

3 nightgowns 1.00 3.00 

2 pair corsets , . . . 1.50 3.00 

Stockings, 8 pair 25 2.00 

1 pair high shoes . 3.50 

1 pair low shoes 3.00 

1 pair slippers 3.00 

1 pair rubbers .75 

1 pair sandals .50 

1 black sateen petticoat 1.50 

1 wool dress plain, to be worn with coat for every day . 10.00 

1 silk waist 4.00 

Winter hats, remodeled, one new 8.00 

3 tailored waists 3.00 

Summer hats, remodeled 2.00 

1 new summer hat 6.00 

1 silk umbrella 2.00 

Mending shoes 1.50 

Gloves, 1 pair dogskin, 1 kid, 2 cotton 3.00 

Collars, etc 5.00 

1 spring suit . 20.00 

1 white muslin dress 8.00 

1 linen suit 10.00 

$107.75 



318 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



Third Year 




4 summer undervests , . . . . 


$1.00 


4 pair drawers ,...*.,., . 


2.00 


4 corset covers . . . » » » , » , » . o , . . 


2.00 


2 pair corsets ..,,..,.,...0.0. 


3.00 


Stockings .... o,.., .,,.,. = . 


2.00 


3 union suits, part wool .., ,.,»»,,, » 


4.50 


2 pair high shoes . . . , , » . » . . . = . , 


7.00 


2 pair low shoes . . , , ,.,... 


0.00 


2 pair rubbers « . , » . . . . . 


1.50 


1 pair sandals . . 


.50 




3.00 


1 black sateen petticoat . 


1.50 


Short outing flannel skirts ......... 


1.00 


1 winter suit = 


18.00 




10.00 


4 shirt waists 


5.00 


1 lawn dress, made at home . . . . 


2.00 


1 new hat, summer 


8.00 


Handkerchiefs, 16 at $.12| . 


2.00 


1 simple silk dress for evening 


. 15.00 




. 10.00 


Gloves, 3 pair 


3.00 




3.00 


1 rubber coat 


5.00 



Average per year of $124.82. 



$116.00 



EXERCISES 

1. What is meant by a clothing budget ? 

2. Plan to keep an account of all the money spent for your cloth- 
ing by your parents during the year. 

3. In order to plan the wardrobe economically, what points must 
one consider ? 

4. Criticize the clothing budget which averages $85 a year. How 
might it have been improved ? 

5. Prepare a $100 budget for a girl making her underwear and 
shirt waists. 



CHAPTER XXII 

CARE AND REPAIR OP CLOTHING 

'' A STITCH in time saves nine," and the life of an article of 
clothing may be prolonged by good care. This means more 
money to spend on other things when one's income is limited. 
In order to be well dressed and well groomed a girl should 
give daily care to the articles of clothing being worn. It may 
be but a slight attention here or there, but if the small things, 
such as replacing a hook, fastening a button, removing a 
spot, are neglected, much more time is consumed finally in 
repairing or renovating, and in the interim one is not neatly 
dressed. There is no indication of character so sure as this 
one. 

A FEW SUGGESTIONS FOR DAILY USE 

Coats, skirts, and waists should be kept on hangers; skirts 
on the kind that will keep the bands straight and coats or 
waists on coat hangers. If one has no hangers, loops at the 
sides of the skirts and nails placed in the closet at right 
distance will keep bands extended. A piece of wood wound 
with cotton batting covered with muslin or silk and with a 
ribbon or tape hanger will make a good substitute for a coat 
hanger. If one has hangers, a pole across a closet is an 
economizer of space. Hangers prolong the life of clothes 
and cost very little. 

Clothes when removed at night should be aired. Waists 
should be turned so shields will dry. Shields should be 
washed every two or three days. Underwear being worn 

319 



320 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

should be aired daily. Different clothing should be worn at 
night. 

Waists in reserve may be kept in boxes or bureau drawers. 
If they are fancy, stuff the sleeves and bows with tissue 
paper. Good gowns should have cover bags slipped over 
them as they hang in closets. The cover bags are easily 
made (see Chap. XVI). 

Remember to protect clothing in daily use. — A little 
brushing every day will keep dust from accumulating. An 
apron worn while at work is a great protection, and there 
are many attractive ones for all kind of uses. Do not throw 
clothing around in a heap. Notice if your skirt braid is 
torn or a hook and eye is needed or a stitch is necessary. 
Do it at once. Watch the yokes of dresses. Removable 
ones that may be washed are most serviceable. 

Pressing. — There is nothing which adds so much to the 
life of a suit or skirt as an occasional pressing. It also 
increases one's feeling of comfort and one appears better 
gowned. It can be done easily at home if one cannot afford 
to send garments to a tailor. Press on the wrong side, as a 
rule, except in the steaming process. In pressing, place a 
dampened cloth over the part to be pressed, and press with 
hot irons until nearly dry. Then turn and press dry on 
wrong side. Sleeve broads, tailor cushions, and good boards 
are aids in pressing. Woolen goods will mark or shine if 
pressed on right side without a cloth. 

Care of shoes and rubbers. — It pays to have two pairs 
of shoes for daily wear and to alternate in wearing. Keep 
the pair not in use on shoe trees. These can be purchased 
in different grades from $.25 to $1, and they prolong the 
life of shoes. If one cannot afford trees, the ordinary pliable 
rattan of one half inch diameter can be bent and used to keep 
the shoes stretched. A good polish helps to preserve the shoes 



CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHING 321 

and is necessary if one is neat. Rubbers protect shoes. 
When shoes get wet the thread rots and the soles separate. 
Rubbers will last a long time with care. Wash them. Soft 
paper stuffed in heels and toes will prolong their life. Adhe- 
sive plaster or a few stitches will help if they become split 
at the sides. 

Care of clothing between seasons. — After each season, 
clothing should be put away in good condition ready for the 
next year. Woolen garments should be repaired, well 
brushed, hung in the sunshine, and then carefully folded. 
Brush out of doors if possible and do not forget the inside 
of pockets, the lapels, and cuffs or hems where dust and 
eggs of moths collect. Fold carefully on seams wheneyer 
possible. Gum camphor and tar paper are moth preven- 
tives, and can be used in packing clothes away. After boxes 
are wrapped, mark with labels so that contents can be easily 
found when needed. Garments brushed and put away in 
newspapers and boxes carefully sealed are well protected, 
if no other preventive is obtainable. In packing away 
summer clothing it should be clean and carefully folded. 
Blue tissue paper is said to prevent white materials or lace 
from turning yellow. 

Care of colored clothes before laundering. — It pays to 
set colors before washing. For blue, use J cup of vinegar 
and 1 tablespoon of alum to a pail of water. Lavenders 
may be treated with 1 tablespoonful of sugar of lead. Pinks 
and blacks may be set with salt, 2 cups to the pail of water, 
and soak several hours before washing. 

Renovating and cleaning of clothing. — Much expense can 
be saved by home care of clothing and all textiles through 
renovating and cleaning. It is well at the beginning of a 
season to examine the contents of one's wardrobe and decide 
as to the possibilities. The cost may be a little trouble, but 



322 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

when gowns, suits, and hats are worth renovating or remodel- 
ing it is a satisfaction to make use of them. 

Dyeing. — Many garments may be freshened and made 
presentable by cleaning. If they are faded, it often pays to 
r6dye them. Garments or materials to be dyed should 
first be cleansed, spots removed, or garment washed if 
possible. If there is a trimming of a different textile, it 
should be removed and dyed separately. If one is inex- 
perienced in the chemistry of dyeing and in the mixing of 
colors, it is possible to obtain package dyes with full direc- 
tions for use on different textiles. Do not forget that the 
fibers take dyes differently and require different mordants 
for fixing the colors. Dyes intended for wool or silk cannot 
be used on cotton or linen. A mordant of alum or salt of 
tin is used to fix the color. It is wise to experiment if pos- 
sible first rather than to spoil the article to be dyed. Goods 
should be thoroughly wet before being put into the dye bath, 
or they will dye unevenly. The washing and rinsing are a 
necessary preparation, for material which is dirty will not 
take the dye in a clear way, but will look muddy. The 
washing may also aid in removing some of the old dye by 
boiling in strong soap and water for half an hour and chang- 
ing the water when it becomes colored. Wool, of course, 
should not be boiled in this way. 

There is one great difficulty which confronts the novice in 
this field — it is not easy to tell what influence the dye will 
have on the fabric if it is already colored. It is easy to dye 
white fabrics or redye any material the same color or a 
trifle darker, but the combinations of dye color and fabric 
color necessitate a real study of color in order that the mix- 
ing may bring about the desired results. The material to 
be dyed should be rinsed carefully after dyeing. A little 
experimenting with samples will repay the inexperienced 



CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHING 323 

dyer. Tinting is sometimes a useful way of renovating 
Logwood is useful in obtaining brown ; for blueing try 
laundry blue ; cream color may be obtained from saffron ; and 
tea and coffee give different ecru shades. 

Renovating laces. — Irish crochet should be carefully 
washed in warm water and a pure white soap to which some 
good ammonia has been added. If possible put on the 
grass to bleach. Irish crochet may be ironed on the wrong 
side on a soft crash towel. It is better to place it on a cloth- 
covered board and pin down carefully each point of lace in 
the shape desired. Place it in the sun to dry. Almost any 
lace can be pinned down. It is not necessary to starch or 
add dressing. If pinned while very wet it will be stiff 
enough. Softer laces may be tacked to cheesecloth soaked 
in cold water, and washed carefully in borax and water, and 
if necessary bleached with Javelle water. (See Laundering.) 
Place in sun to dry. Some laces can be pressed between 
cloths and some varieties on the wrong side with cloth or 
paper between. Judgment must be used. A marble slab 
is useful and lace spread on the marble carefully or wound 
about a bottle often dries very satisfactorily and looks like 
new. 

Renovating of silks and velvets. — Velvet should be 
brushed and steamed. Put a wet cloth over a hot iron, 
and the wrong side of the velvet towards the wet cloth ; 
draw it back and forth, brushing with soft brush. The nap 
is raised by the steam unless too badly marked. Velvet can 
also be steamed over a kettle. The effect of panne velvet 
can be made by dampening the back of the velvet and iron- 
ing it on the nap side with a cool iron. Silks should be sponged 
before pressing. Lay the silk flat on a marble, sponge up and 
down with a mixture of soap and water and alcohol. Rinse 
but do not wring. Press when half or nearly dry on the wrong 



324 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

side between papers ; do not put the iron next to the silk, as 
it takes away its life and makes it shiny. Old silks and 
ribbons when renovated can be used for hair ribbons and 
hat trimmings. Old silk waists and petticoats can be used 
for shirred silk hats when such are in style. 

Renovating of hat materials, — Besides silks and velvets 
old hat materials, such as feathers and flowers, can be cleansed 
and reused. Faded flowers and foliage can be used when 
not too old or soiled by cutting away the frayed edges and 
painting them with water colors or oil paint thinned with 
gasoline. Feathers when slightly uncurled can be recurled 
by shaking and drying over the stove on which some salt 
has been sprinkled. A small curling knife can be bought 
for curling purposes, but unless one is expert, more damage 
than good is the result, and it is better to take the feathers 
to a reliable shop to be renovated. Wire or other frames 
can be reused by changing shape, lowering crowns, and 
enlarging brims. Straws can be easily cleaned. Black 
straw after dusting can be cleansed with ammonia and water, 
reblackened with shoe blacking or dye; the straw can be 
brushed and freshened with dye or blue. Whole hats can 
be dyed ; and when a white hat has been burned this is per- 
haps the best way to make use of it. Natural straws can 
be treated with prepared cleaning fluids or washed in warm 
water and a pure white soap applied with a brush. In 
cleaning shops, blocks are used for pressing. To restore 
stiffness, press hats with hot iron while still damp. 

Cleaning of clothing can be done with little expense and 
often in a satisfactory way at home. Washing accomplishes 
a great deal (see Laundering, Book II). The first thing to 
do toward removing a stain is to try to discover what has 
caused the stain. If one does not know, it is wise to test 
some other place on garment where it will not be noticed. 



CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHING 325 

Woolen goods can be cleansed by washing in warm water 
with soap solution or soap bark. A soap solution is made 
by simmering, not boiling, one cake of soap in two cups of 
water. Press on the wrong side when almost dry or with 
damp cheesecloth on right side. Soap bark is prepared 
for use by putting five cents' worth in a few quarts of water. 
After it has stood an hour, strain it and pour into the 
lukewarm water in which material is to be washed. Wash 
and rinse carefully, always rinsing in the same warm tem- 
perature as the washing, so as not to shrink by sudden 
shock. Bath temperature is about right. Every girl should 
know how to remove the everyday spots that are so likely 
to appear. Large garments which need cleansing should be 
sent to the* professional cleaner, as well as delicate fabrics 
spotted by an unknown substance. There are some of the 
simple stains that can be removed with care from white 
cotton goods. Silks, wools, and colored goods need special 
care. 

Ink. — Where the composition is unknown it is difficult 
to know what to use first. Sour milk or several rinsings in 
sweet milk may cause the spot to disappear. Then wash 
in warm water and soap to remove grease. If this is not 
successful, a paste made of lemon juice, starch, and salt, or 
finally Javelle water. Soak for a few minutes in Javelle 
water, wash ; repeat process if necessary. 

Grass stains. — Alcohol may be used when the material 
cannot be washed, or for white goods. When color will 
stand it, dyed fabrics, grass stained, can be washed with 
strong ammonia and water followed by warm soap solution 
and careful rinsing. 

Blood stains. — Lukewarm water and a little ammonia 
will remove blood stains that are fresh. When on colored 
silk, wash carefully with lukewarm water or soap solution. 



326 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

Rust stains. — On table linen, wet the spot and apply a 
few drops of hydrochloric acid solution and wash thoroughly. 
On colored or wool goods, if of good quality, special applica- 
tions of citric acid solution cold will generally remove. 
Great care is required for colors. 

' Fruit stains. — Stretch the fabric, if white, over a bowl 
and pour boiling water from a height through the spot. On 
white wool or silk, lukewarm soap solution is sometimes 
effective, or boiling water applied while borax is brushed on. 
On colored garments it is wise to consult a professional dyer. 

Coffee and tea stains. — Remove by washing in lukewarm 
water and then dipping in washing soda solution and again 
carefully rinsing to remove all soda. (Make solution of 
three parts of washing soda to one hundred of water.) Tea 
stains can also be removed by soaking in glycerine and then 
washing. 

Grease spots. — Most grease spots can be easily removed 
with naptha soap and lukewarm water. Chemical or dry 
cleaning will remove grease spots by dissolving the fat. 
The cleaning liquid may be ether, turpentine, or benzine 
{which must he used well away from fire or flame) , or chloroform 
or carbon tetrachloride. On silk sand satins rub the spot 
with a thin paste made of benzine and carbonate of 
magnesia. The benzine evaporates and the magnesia will 
absorb the grease and can be brushed off. Dry French chalk 
or magnesia powdered and allowed to remain on the material 
for a while will usually remove grease spots successfully. It 
may be necessary to brush off and repeat several times. 

On wool or cotton remove grease spots by rubbing the 
spot several times with a sponge saturated with benzine. 
Use fresh benzine, as each rub removes some of the fat, 
otherwise fat will spread. A warm iron and blotting paper 
will remove some grease spots. 



CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHING 327 

Milk spots. — Cold water and a pure white soap will re- 
move milk spots from some fabrics. Wet the spot with 
pure glycerine by means of stiff brush. When thoroughly 
saturated, wash carefully for five or ten minutes in luke- 
warm water. Wring out and iron on wrong side. 

Machine oil. — Wash in cold water and pure white soap. 
This will remove most machine oil spots. 

These simple methods of removing spots should enable 
every girl to be neat. It will aid materially in removing 
spots if a pad is used. This can be made of several thick- 
nesses of old cloth or blotting paper and should be moved 
about to take up the grease in a fresh spot as the solvent 
dissolves it. Good brushes and a glass slab aid in doing 
careful work. 

If the garment is too large to be cleaned at home, brush 
and repair it carefully before sending to the cleaners. If 
it is to be cleansed at home, use only the best of gasoline or 
naphtha. Beware of fire and dip the garment in quantities 
of the gasoline large enough to make it worth the effort. 
Rinse again in fresh gasoline. 

Mending and remodeling of clothing. — Mending in many 
families seems to be a lost art. Stockings are worn 
until holes appear, then discarded. This does not tend to 
increase one's self-respect, for well-cared-for clothing is an 
indication of character. The majority of housewives repair 
after the weekly laundering. It is wise also to repair before. 
Laundering often increases the size of holes and weakens 
the torn or worn parts as they are rubbed. This pre- 
laundering repair will be found to be a time saver and in- 
crease the life of the garments. It is possible to spend too 
much time on old garments. Good judgment should be 
used. The sewing machine can often be used for darning, 
patching, or other repairing. Sewing machine darners 



328 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

vary in practicability, but some are serviceable. Good 
judgment is necessary in deciding about the method of repair- 
ing various garments, whether a patch or a darn is to be 
used, a part replaced, or a bit of tape or net used as a stay. 
Tape arid net are indispensable. Brussels net placed under 
worn collars or lingerie waists, thin dresses, or even light 
wool materials is useful and serviceable for staying while 
darning. 

A mending basket is a great help, and if possible a mend- 
ing drawer, where basket, darning bag, with all the necessary 
tools and materials for stocking darning, and garments to 
be repaired can be kept. A sewing room is an added joy 
to the housewife. A drawer in which to keep materials for 
repairing is almost indispensable. A scrap bag, if one can- 
not spare a drawer or (one woman's invention) a sofa cushion 
cover may be used as a scrap bag where space is limited. 
In large families it saves time to have the clothes of indi- 
viduals carefully marked. There are various systems of 
marking that aid in sorting. 

Patching. — As all girls should learn to patch in the ele- 
mentary school it is not necessary here to describe the 
method of making the various patches. The hemmed patch 
is perhaps the most useful, and the flannel patch is one every 
girl should know how to make. Patches are used when holes 
are too large to be darned. The hemmed patch is used on 
materials requiring laundering, such as underwear and house- 
hold linen, the flannel patch on garments that are liable to 
shrink and which are too thick for turned edges. When it is 
necessary to use a patch of new material on a faded garment 
the patch can be faded, if of cotton or linen, by boiling in 
soapy water to which soda has been added. The overhanded 
patch is used on materials seldom washed, where the rough 
overcasted edges on the wrong side are not objectionable. 



CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHING 329 

The overhanded patch shows little on the right side, and is 
useful for dimity or other dresses. In all repairing careful 
pressing is a great aid. 

Darning is useful not only to replace parts worn away, 
but to prevent wearing. Methods of darning are familiar 
to all high school girls. It is necessary to choose carefully 
the mending material so as to match the color and texture of 
material. Wool, silk, linen, and cotton thread, ravelings of 
material, horse hair, and human hair are all possibilities. 
The needle should be as fine as can be used with the neces- 
sary thread, as it is desirable to make the work as inconspicu- 
ous as possible. When the material is missing the woven 
darn is necessary. Stockings, sweaters, woolen gloves, and 
caps of knitted materials are best repaired by darning. 
When this method of repairing is used for reenforcing cotton, 
net is often very useful. It is basted under the woven part 
and the darning used to strengthen and hold in place. The 
machine darner is well worth while for certain purposes of 
everyday mending. 

Mending tissue is a useful adjunct of the repair basket. 
It is used by tailors for mending ragged tears. It is a semi- 
transparent substance of rubber consistency. A piece is 
placed beneath the tear and a hot iron melts the substance, 
which adheres to the material and keeps the edges together. 

Remodeling. — It does not always pay to cleanse and 
make over old clothes. Decide first whether the material is 
good enough to make the work worth while. It is generally 
worth while to replace yokes, to add new sleeves, or to 
lengthen garments. Children's garments can be lengthened 
by letting down hems and adding false ones. This can be 
done with the use of tucks and seldom shows. Material 
of the same or contrasting kind can be added to skirts at 
the bottom. Quite a length can be added by turning the 



330 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

hem to the right side and using a cord covered with the same 
material as piping where hem is sewed. Featherstitching, 
braid, or other trimmings are useful in this way. Garments 
of wash material can also be lengthened by the insertion of 
bands of embroidery or braid. Care must be used to place 
well in proportion to the length of the skirt. Old skirts, if 
of good woolen material, can be ripped, washed, recut, and 
made over satisfactorily. Wash waists which have become 
worn about collar or wrists and are not worth a new collar 
or cuffs can be utilized by cutting away worn collars and 
wearing with a turn-down Dutch collar in warm weather. 
The sleeves can be cut short as desired and finished with a 
suitable edge. When waists are worn beneath the arm and 
are worth it, rip the sleeve at the armhole and underarm 
seams, and replace with new pieces. 

If mothers or sisters have the time, it pays to use good 
half-worn clothing for coats or suits for the boys or little 
children. Discarded clothing of no value to others can be 
washed, cut in strips, and sent to a local weaver to be made 
into rugs. Old stockings make very good stripes in the carpet, 
or several may be sewed together and used for iron holders 
or soft cleaning cloths. 

In our grandmother's day, sheets were made of two widths 
of cloth sewed through the middle. When worn, they were 
ripped at the center and the worn part turned to the edges. 
It is possible to-day when sheets become worn, if width per- 
mits, to cut through center and place the selvedges in seam 
at the center, thus lengthening their period of usefulness. 
Tablecloths, napkins, towels, pillowcases, and curtains 
should be watched carefully and darned or patched in time. 



CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHING 331 

EXERCISES 

1. Give five suggestions for the care of clothing which can be 
practiced daily. 

2. What ethical reasons can you give for exercising care of one's 
clothing ? 

3. Experiment in the chemical laboratory with the use of some 
package or 'vegetable dyes. 

4. Bring to the chemical laboratory garments from which spots 
are to be removed. Follow directions for removal. 

5. Bring to class and repair garments by means of patching, 
darning, and use of mending net. 

6. Give suggestions for economy in the use and remodeling of 
clothing. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 

It has been said that one of the evidences of an educa- 
tion is the abihty to do. All high school girls should be 
able if necessity or desire dictates to make their simple 
dresses. Girls often remark what a saving it is to be able 
to make even their shirt waists and white skirts. It saves 
money and one can have prettier garments because it is not 
necessary to pay a dressmaker. Girls have in some high 
schools in New York made their own graduation dresses 
within a limit of one dollar for materials. There is a great 
satisfaction which comes with the independence one feels 
in the ability to do. 

What dresses should a high school girl be able to make ? — 
The following list includes simple dresses that come within 
the ability of every high school girl. If she has made the 
undergarments suggested, the following outer garments can 
be made under the teacher's direction with little difficulty : — 

1. Middy blouse 6. Norfolk jacket waist of 

2. Shirt waist (simple lingerie) cotton, to be worn with 



3. 


Tailored cotton skirt 


tailored skirt 


4. 


Gymnasium suit 


7. Simple one-piece gingham 




a. bloomers 


dress 




h. waist 


8. Simple one-piece white 


5. 


Tailored shirt waist 


dimity or lawn dress 



9. One-piece wool dress 
The construction of these garments should be very easily 
accomplished, as some of the processes have been practiced 

332 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 333 

in the garment making described in previous chapters. A 
few suggestions in relation to each will be made to indicate 
the course of procedure. 

The middy blouse. — This is one of the first garments for 
which every high school girl has a need — in basket ball or 
other gymnasium work. It can be worn with bloomers or, 
outside the gymnasium, with a skirt. White duck or linen 
is a suitable and satisfactory material. 

Use commercial pattern (see Chap. XIV for selection of 
pattern). Lay it economically, trace according to allow- 
ance for seams. Do not forget to place pattern on a' fold 
where only half a part is given. 

Baste seams on the outside at shoulder and underarm. 
Try on, and if necessary drop the front to fit smoothly across 
chest, or let out at underarm, if extra fullness is needed. 
Stitch seams on right side. Cut off a portion of each seam 
towards front and lap back portion to make flat fell J" wide. 
Make hem at bottom V finished, turned to right side. 
Seams are often finished in other ways and turned to the 
wrong side. Next prepare collar. If it is to be trimmed 
with braid, do so before it is attached or lined. Attach 
collar and facing, following notches and directions of pattern 
so as to have a smooth facing around the opening of the 
blouse where it rolls back at the neck. Hem the collar, 
facing neatly by hand around neck after collar has been 
stitched on and the outside edges stitched in tailored fashion. 
The sleeves can be seamed with a false French seam. This 
is a simple seam made on the wrong side and the edges turned 
in and stitched. Sleeves of the middy blouse are made both 
with and without cuffs. Often a half-inch hem only is placed 
at the bottom and the sleeves rolled. A cuff gives the 
sleeve a more finished look. Follow directions of pattern for 
attaching it. The blouse is worn with a silk scarf placed 



334 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

under the rolled collar and tied in a sailor's knot at the front. 
Black or red ties contrast well with white waists trimmed 
with dark blue or red braid. 

Simple lingerie shirt waist. — Use drafted shirt waist 
pattern from which the corset cover and chemise were de- 
veloped (see Fig. 103). Dimity, lawn, madras, and flaxon 
are all suitable materials. Put the cambric pattern of the 
shirt waist on a figure. Look through fashion books and de- 
cide how you wish to trim the waist. Hold or arrange the 
material over the pattern on figure to get the effect and, if 
it is to be tucked, pin in an arrangement. Remove material 
and tuck or decorate with lace according to style selected. 
(See decoration of underwear for methods of inserting lace 
or other decoration.) The waist can be opened in front or 
back. Plan decoration and make hems for laps accordingly. 
Do not lay cambric pattern of waist on the material for cut- 
ting out until the decoration has been completed. In laying 
the front pattern, adjust fullness so that the fullness falls 
in straight lines and is not drawn towards underarm. The 
warp of the material at underarm should be slightly on the 
bias. Trace, making seam allowance V at shoulder and 
underarm and l" at neck and armhole. Cut from corrected 
drafted pattern. 

Baste seams and try on. Pin cotton belting J" around 
waist, and in fitting adjust gathers at center front and back 
to fit the belt. The sides and underarm should be smooth, 
and the seams on a straight line about under the armpit. 
The shoulder seams should be well located on top of shoulder. 
If a person is round-shouldered, the seam placed slightly to 
the back of the shoulder bone will help to correct this in ap- 
pearance. Trim the armhole if it is snug. Even off around 
bottom according to length desired. Four inches below belt is 
sufficient. This can all be done at the first fitting, and unless 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 335 

the waist needs many alterations it can be finished to this 
point, leaving neck and sleeves for second fitting. Care 
must be taken that neck is not stretched at the first fitting. 
The collar can be prepared, pinned, and basted in place if 
desired, for this fitting. Finish underarm and shoulder 
seams with French or false French seams as narrow as possible. 
Belt can be sewed on the right or wrong side of waist. If 
belt is not used, a piece of tape can be sewed at center front 
and back to hold the fullness of gathers. Sometimes tape 
or belting is attached only at back from underarm to under- 
arm seam, and the front left loose to be held in by ends of 
the belt passed around to front and lapped. Stitch belting 
or tape at both edges, but be sure it falls below the waist- 
line of skirt band. Hem bottom of waist by machine with 
J'' hem. Next, prepare collar — ■ a straight piece is best for 
a simple lingerie waist, if a collar is desired. Decorate to 
correspond with waist trimming. The top of the collar 
can be slightly shaped ; the bottom should be straight. Pre- 
pare sleeves to correspond in trimming with waist. Slip 
on to see if width is correct and sew the seam. The sleeve 
seam usually falls from 2'' to 3'' to the front of the under- 
arm seam. The gathers of sleeve should be adjusted 2" or 
2i'' to the back and 4'' to the front of the shoulder seam. 
The collar and sleeves should be basted in place for this fitting. 
There should be a good straight line at bottom of collar where 
attached. Try on and, if necessary, alter sleeve or collar. 
If these are placed carefully, it seldom happens that a third 
fitting is necessary. Baste armhole binding. This should be 
a bias strip of lawn 1'' wide. Baste to the waist side. Stitch 
on with sleeve, which should be stitched on the sleeve side. 
Turn and hem by hand to seam. Collar can be stitched flat 
on right side and the inside edge of waist hemmed to collar, 
or collar turned and hemmed to the waist. It can also be 



336 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



stitched in a seam on wrong side and the edges turned in false 
French seam. Entre deux is sometimes used in joining the 
collar to the waist. Necks can also be trimmed and finished 
for square necks or round low necks for Dutch collars. 

Tailored cotton skirt (see Fig. 133). — This skirt can 
be worn with tailored shirt, lingerie, or Norfolk jacket waist. 
Cotton duck or linon is inexpensive ; or linen can be used. 
Use draft for foundation skirt pattern. 
Divide in gores according to style (see 
Fig. 109). Place gores on cloth economi- 
cally. Trace seam allowance and cut out. 
One inch is enough to allow on the seams 
and I" at top of skirt. Mark the notches 
and allow for the bottom of the skirt. 

To fit skirt : Baste together with seams 
on the wrong side, holding bias side of 
gores always toward the worker and match 
notches. Place tape belting around waist, 
lapping at point where skirt will open. 
Skirts are fitted with right side out. Pin 
carefully at waistline to the belting. 
The lines of skirt seams should be straight 
and not fall too far to front or back. Skirt 
should be easy over the hips, and not so 
tight across back or front that easy walk- 
ing is impossible or the form is displayed in an ugly fashion. 
Darts should be carefully pinned to fit. Remove skirt, trace 
alterations, rebaste, and fit a second time before stitching. 
Seams can be finished with simple seams lapped or flat felled. 
If paneled front or back is used, as in six-gored skirt, the side 
seams are usually simple and the panels stitched flat to the 
side gores Y' from the edges of panels. This gives a tailored 
finish of I" tuck at each side of panel. Seams inside can be 




Fig. 133. — Tailored 
shirt waist and skirt. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 337 

overcasted. There are many ways of finishing the placket 
facing. If the paneled front is used, finish the under lap or 
straight edge of first gore with two strips of cotton tape sewed 
together flat with raw edge of gore between tapes. The panel 
or front of placket which is on top should not show the sewing 
on the right side. Place the raw edge of panel between two 
strips of tape and hem by hand to the material inside. The 
edges of the tape at the outside can be stitched together. The 
belt can be finished by trimming the skirt material so it is even 
with top of waist tape. Place another strip of tape on top and 
stitch at both edges. The bottom of skirt should be turned 
and tried on and corrected if necessary. Lay plaits of full- 
ness carefully where they fall and baste the hem. Try on 
again before stitching or hemming by hand. If an inverted 
plait is used at center back opening of the skirt, a single 
piece of material 2'' wide can be attached to the under side 
of opening with a felled seam. Outer edge of this can be 
hemmed with J'' hem. The upper side of opening can be 
faced with a strip 2'' wide sewed in simple seam and hemmed 
flat. A row of stitching across bottom of vent will prevent 
tearing down. 

The gymnasium suit, bloomers and waist (see Fig. 134). — 
Sateen is inexpensive and can be handled easily ; brilliantine 
or serge can also be used. If one does not care to have the 
blouse match the bloomers, the middy of cotton duck or linen 
can be used with the bloomers. Use commercial pattern. 
Alter according to measurements (see Chap. XIV). 

Lay the pattern economically. Find out whether or not 
your pattern allows for seams and trace accordingly. 

Bloomers should be seamed with flat fell seams. The 
plackets at sides can be constructed in the same way as de- 
scribed for closed drawers. The fullness of the bloomers 
can be plaited or gathered to fit the waistbands. The waist- 



338 



SHELTER AND^ CLOTHING 



bands should be wide enough to be comfortable ; if the pattern 
does not indicate them at least 2" wide finished, alter it. 
The front band is usually shorter than the back and the 
buttons are placed on it and the buttonholes on the back 
band. Buttonholes can be placed on the 
.Middle of the bands or two at sides instead 
.)i button if it is to be buttoned to the 
waist. At the knees make casing and run 
in elastic to hold fullness. 

After cutting the waist, baste at under- 
arm and shoulder for fitting. Some pat- 
terns do not allow for plaits at front lap 
or tucks to be taken for extra fullness 
across front. If this allowance is not 
made, the front hems for laps and the 
tucks between front and armholes should 
be made before the waist is cut out,, as 
described for lingerie or tailored waist. If 
pattern allows for tucks, then these must 
be basted and also front hems before fit- 
ting, as described for lingerie waist. But- 
tons or hooks and eyes can be placed on 
the waist belt, and the bloomers hooked 
or buttoned to it. An extra belt can be used to cover over 
and finish. The collar and cuffs can be finished as pattern 
provides. The open neck is more comfortable for gymna- 
sium work, and some prefer short sleeves to long ones with 
cuffs. 

Tailored shirt waists (see Figs. 135 and 136). — Use 
drafted shirtwaist pattern (see Fig. 103). Decide whether 
or not tucks are to be placed each side of front lap. If so, 
place and finish tucks as well as front lap before cutting out. 
The tailored waist should lap from left to right. The under 




Fig. 



134. — Gymna- 
sium suit. 



I 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 



339 



lap at right should be l\" turned to wrong side of waist. The 
upper lap for buttonholes should be l^" wide and finished 
with a row of stitching each side |" from the edges. If the 
material has a right and wrong side, care must be taken 
to turn the lap to the wrong side and to inclose the raw 




Fig. 135. — Front of tailored shirt waist. 

edge in the f tuck on the inside of the plait where the 
stitching is placed. Lay pattern economically and trace. 
Allow for seams and fitting as described for lingerie waist. 

Seams for tailored waists should be flat felled on the right 
side i" finished. Attach belting and hem at bottom as de- 



340 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

scribed for lingerie waist. Finish neck with shaped collar 
band J" wide finished at center back. For draft of shirt 
sleeve use pattern under teacher's direction (see Figs. 135 
and 136). Finish with J" flat fell. Placket opening should 
•be cut 1" to the under side from fold of sleeve. Face 




Fig. 136. — Back of tailored shirt waist. 

in tailored fashion with pointed facing If wide finished and 
in length from cuff 5" to top of point. The opening- from 
bottom is cut 4''. The cuff is a straight piece cut lengthwise 
of material 3" wide finished and length according to wrist 



THM CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 341 

measurement. To make the placket two pieces are re- 
quired. One is cut twice the length of the opening plus J" 
and 2'' wide. The second strip is If wide and once the 
length of the opening plus IJ'' for point above opening. 
Baste the long strip to side of opening, which will be under 
when finished. Begin at bottom of sleeve. Baste with 
right side of strip to wrong side of sleeve in simple seam 
and stitch to end of vent. Half the strip will be unat- 
tached. Turn strip to right side of sleeve, turn in i", and 
baste so finished facing will be lY' wide finished. In folding 
over this facing, place so that f extends at the vent side 
and the seam taken falls J'' away from the edge. Fold the re- 
maining half of the facing so it is the same width as attached 
half, baste edges, and fold this basted strip so that it lies 
flat on the half attached. Fold sleeve portion so that it lies 
flat on the strip and baste. The raw edges of this upper 
half must be covered with the second strip, cut If. Prepare 
this strip by turning and basting edges so it is IJ" wide. 
Place end to bottom of sleeve and baste flat on top over the 
width of the under facing, and covering the raw edges. Turn 
top in point, cut away unnecessary thickness, and baste 
to portion of sleeve above opening. Stitch once carefully 
close to the edge. Prepare cuff and turn edges evenly and 
baste edges where they are to be attached. Slip gathered 
sleeve within, with the seam of the sleeve 1'' back of 
the center of the cuff. Baste in place so the gathers fall 
principally on the top half. Stitch once all around cuff and 
across bottom where attached. A second row J'' from the 
row where attached gives a neat finish. The sleeves are 
located as described for lingerie waist, and gathers adjusted. 
Baste the bias lawn seam binding for armhole, holding it on 
the sleeve side instead of waist side as for lingerie waist. 
Stitch this on with the sleeve. Fold binding back flat 



842 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



against the waist so that it covers the seam edges. Baste, 
and on right side place two rows of stitching about J'' apart so 
that the finish is Hke the felled seams. This double row of 
stitching falls on the seam binding. 

Norfolk jacket waist, of cotton cloth, to be worn with tai- 
lored skirt (see Fig. 137). Cut from commercial pattern. 

Use same material as skirt. Baste 
shoulder and underarm seams and if 
necessary alter, locating shoulder and 
underarm seams as suggested for fitting 
lingerie waist. Trace alterations and 
seam the shoulders only, with seam on 
right side. Place yoke seam so as to 
correspond with shoulder seams and raw 
edges inside. Baste carefully. Locate 
position of straps, which should be pre- 
pared by basting and stitching only 
at the place where belt will pass. 
Baste and stitch straps in place. Face 
fronts; seam underarms with flat fell 
seams ; hem bottom with 1" hem. Pre- 
pare collar, stitch to facing, turn inside 
out, and attach to the waist so that 
hemming down by hand of the facing 
is around the neck on inside of waist. 
Prepare sleeves with cuffs as pattern 
directs. Finish with buttons and but- 
tonholes and necktie if desired. 

One-piece gingham dress, — Use drafted pattern of shirt 
waist and foundation skirt pattern. Any suitable wash ma- 
terial can be used. Select style from fashion book. Prepare 
waist according to directions given above for lingerie or tai- 
lored waist. Prepare skirt as suggested for tailored skirt or 



\ 


k 


,'^^SM 


1 


/^g^H 


f 


^ pot^S 


r 


3^ 




4^^ 


K 


^mt 


j^ 


^ 


/ 




1 


I 



Fig. 137. — Norfolk 
jacket waist. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 



343 



other adaptation of foundation skirt. Do not finish waist 
at bottom or skirt at belt or bottom hem. Try on waist 
and skirt together. Lap at the waist so that the belt of the 
skirt falls in the right place on the waist, pin in place carefully. 
Finish the waist with a belt of same material, braid or em- 
broidery trimming, according to waist decoration. This is 
placed over the lap of skirt and waist and stitched in place. 
A cord may also be used to finish top of skirt, if belt is not 
desired. Cut away unnecessary portions of waist below the 
belt line and finish at the waistline before hem is placed in 
bottom of skirt. This is to insure evenness. Simple ging- 
ham dresses can be made with square or round-cut necks or 
finished for Dutch collars and cuffs of white 
linen. Trimming of lace or embroidery can 
be used for decoration according to the 
texture of the material. For a tub dress of 
this character the seams of the waist should 
be felled, French or false French, and the 
seams of the skirt overcasted. For conven- 
ience the dress can be opened down the left 
side of the front. 

One-piece dimity or lawn dress (see Fig. 
138). — This can also be made from the 
adapted pattern of shirt waist and skirt. 
Follow directions given for lingerie waist 
and foundation skirt. It is possible to use 
this dress for graduation and to make and 
trim it in a suitable way for this purpose. 
If time permits, some simple decoration in Fig. 138 
hand embroidery can be placed on the waist 
and sleeves. Dimity, batistes, Swisses, 
Persian lawns, white cotton voile, are all suitable for this 
purpose. The waist and skirt can be attached as described 




Sugges- 
tion for simple 
lingerie dress. 



344 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

for one-piece gingham dress. For girls of high school age, 
the simple lines with simple decoration are much more 
suitable than the fussy, elaborate, and overtrimmed gradua- 
tion dresses of silk one sometimes sees. Study carefully the 
chapter on Costume Design before you decide on the style 
for your graduation gown. 

One-piece wool dress. — All high school girls should 
be able to make simple wool dresses suitable for school. 
The adapted Peter Thomson styles are suitable and the con- 
struction similar to the middy blouse. A commercial pattern 
can be used or the shirt waist and foundation skirt pattern 
adapted. The kimono waist is suitable for this one-piece 
wool dress. If desired, cut from commercial pattern. Ma- 
terials such as serge and wool dress novelties are the most 
satisfactory. The handling of wool material is more difficult 
than cott(?n and necessitates very careful basting and press- 
ing to secure a neat finish. It is not necessary to line simple 
wool dresses, but if this is desired, the waist can be made over 
the shirt waist lining. The material for a wool dress should 
be carefully sponged before making. This is sometimes 
done at the store where goods is bought, or it can be given to 
a local tailor. 

For the skirt use the adapted foundation skirt. In cutting 
out, lay pattern economically and allow IJ'^ for seams on 
wool. Do not forget to allow for the hem at the bottom, 
usually about 3'' to 4'^ Baste. Try on and fit as sug- 
gested for cotton skirt. Open and press the seams on the 
wrong side. Be sure to place a wet cheesecloth over the 
material and not to scorch with too hot an iron. Overcast 
if material is easily raveled. If of firmer cloth, the seams 
can be notched or pinked. The hem of the skirt is not fin- 
ished until the waist and skirt have been attached. There 
are several good ways of finishing the hem. It can be turned 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 345 

once and catch-stitched to the cloth. This can be done so 
that the stitches do not show very much on the right side. 
Another way is to use Prussian binding. This should always 
be held a little full when used, as it is apt to shrink. It can 
be stitched to the top edge of the hem by machine over- 
lapping so that it does not pull out, and then finished by 
hemming by hand to the skirt. It is never advisable to turn 
a woolen hem twice. It should be as flat as possible, and 
pressed carefully. The placket of the skirt is important. 
It should bear some relation to the waist for the sake of good 
Hne. A placket opening at the side of the front and the 
waist at the middle does not help to make long lines. Open 
the placket from 12'' to 14". Some soft silk can be used for 
facing sleeves, neck, and placket. For the underlap of the 
placket, such as can be used at the side of a panel front open- 
ing, seam binding can be used at the edge. On the wrong 
side of this lap, on the line where the eyes for fastening should 
fall, stitch a piece of Prussian binding for strength. The 
eyes can be sewed through to this. For finishing the upper 
lap, take a piece of silk 3|" by 14". From the wrong side, 
slip it within the fold formed by the tuck of the panel. This 
can be held in place by the stitching of the tuck. Sew on the 
hooks, two close together near top and others about f " apart 
and not nearer the edge than i". The placing depends some- 
what on the width of the panel tuck. Fold over the silk 
facing and turn edge so that it covers the shank of the hook. 
Hem along edge. This makes a very neat finish. The top 
of the skirt if attached can be turned at the top. Shrink 
a square of cambric from which bias strips can be cut. Place 
a bias strip of this shrunken cambric at the top where the 
skirt is turned over. This gives strength and is sufficient to 
keep it in shape if attached to the waist. If separate, hem 
the belting on the inside to the top edge just below where 



346 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

turned. A raised waistline is usually 1 J'' above the normal. 
Mark with a basting in fitting. 

For the waist, use commercial pattern or drafted shirt 
waist pattern. If lining of cambric is to be used, prepare it 
by holding in the fullness each side of front in fitting and 
laying the fullness each side of the center back in plaits. 
The lining is not absolutely necessary in the simple one-piece 
wool dress, but for sake of cleanliness can be slipped in and 
tacked in place. Plan outside according to fashion selected. 
Arrange material on figure to get the desired effect. This is 
really modeling. 

It is also possible to use the altered commercial pattern. 
The sleeves should be seamed and pressed open carefully 
on sleeve board. Place as suggested for lingerie waist. Fin- 
ish sleeve at bottom by turning desired length, basting, and 
pressing. Sew on hooks and eyes and face with same silk as 
that used for the placket. The necks can be finished for 
simple Dutch collars of linen or embroidery or for standing 
collars. The waist can also be cut out V-shaped or round and 
the dress worn with a guimpe of net or embroidery. The 
guimpe can be cut by the shirt waist pattern, and half sleeves 
or caps used to hold it down in place. In turning the neck 
for finish use a piece of the shrunken cambric. Cut it on the 
bias about 1'' wide, and in turning back the cloth around 
the opening, turn it over this shrunken cambric. This is for 
strength and to prevent the waist from losing its shape. 
The facing of silk should be cut the shape of the neck open- 
ing. 

In attaching skirt to waist a belting can be placed on the 
outside or inside of the waist and stitched. The skirt can be 
fastened to this by back-stitching by hand or by stitching be- 
low the turned top of the skirt, or the top may be corded if 
that finish is being used. 



p 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRESSES 347 

EXERCISES 

1. Describe the use of felled seams on a tailored shirt waist. 
How is the lap prepared for the buttonholes, where there is a right 
and wrong side to material ? 

2. How are the gathers distributed and the sleeves placed in a 
simple lingerie waist ? 

3. Make a shirt waist placket in paper or muslin at home before 
making it on the waist. 

4. Draw a sketch of the arrangement of decoration for a lingerie 
waist. Make a sketch of a simple gingham dress. 

5. How much material wdll you need for your graduation dress ? 
Compute the cost. Draw sketch of it. Bring to class samples of 
some suitable materials. 

6. Bring samples to class of suitable wool materials for school 
dress. Compute the cost. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
MILLINERY 

Every girl enjoys the thought of being able to produce her 
own hats. Many have natural deftness of touch and an 
aptitude for copying and designing ; others may be able to 
acquire this to a certain degree. The novice with or without 
this natural aptitude must practice and practice again in 
order to secure neat, faultless results and to improve in de- 
sign and the ability to handle work lightly and delicately. 
It is not expected that the average high school girl will have 
time during her course to become very expert. It will be 
a satisfaction to learn the most common processes and how 
to choose hats adapted to face and coloring even if later one 
buys all one's hats. Although there may not be much time 
for millinery in the average course, with such elementary 
principles and practice in making hats for herself and friends, 
the girl of even slight ability can accomplish much. 

The selection of style in headgear. — In the discussion 
of the importance of dress, the general principles of line, 
rhythm, balance, and unity, and color were discussed. These 
principles apply to the selection or planning of hats as well 
as to gowns (see Chap. XIX). The hat, by being too large or 
out of proportion to the figure, may change the appearance 
of the whole silhouette and so overbalance it that the ap- 
pearance of the figure is anything but pleasing. The hat is 
the most difficult article to select for a woman's wardrobe. 
Good taste in selection means a combined knowledge of line, 
form^ and color as well as the fitness of things. The first 

348 



MILLINERY 349 

rule, then, is to choose or plan hats in relation to the whole 
figure rather than to the head alone. This means that a hat 
should be selected before a full-length mirror or planned with 
the full figure in mind. 

The second rule is that the lines of the hat should be 
adapted to the lines of the face. The round face, with re- 
trousse nose, looks best in a hat that is slightly tilted in front 
or with a rolling brim at the front and side. A person with a 
round face should not wear narrow hats that bend over the 
face. The long, thin face will be accentuated by wearing 
high, pointed trimming. Trimming that emphasizes the 
width, and a brim that is rolling and wide bring a better effect. 
If the brim is worn slightly forward, rather than rolled as for 
the round face, the tendency of the shadows is to shorten the 
length of the face. In adapting the lines of the hat to the 
head much depends on the style of dressing the hair. The 
long face is difficult to suit in headgear if the hair is drawn 
back sharply at the sides, and the round face with the hair 
worn fluffy may look more round than if the hair were drawn 
slightly back. 

The care of the hair and skin is very important, for the hat 
tends to emphasize the defects as well as good points of the 
wearer. A neat appearance and becoming arrangement of 
the hair have much to do with the becomingness of a hat. 

Young girls should be especially careful about the use of 
bows on the hair. Extremely large bows are not in good 
taste, but only overemphasize one's defects. The bow to 
be becoming should conform to the lines of the hair and face, 
and the color should be in harmony with the complexion 
and hair. 

The aim is to wear what is becoming and adapted to one's 
style rather than to follow the extremes of fashion. The 
styles of each season can as a rule be adapted to suit indi- 



350 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

viduals. This is the milHner's business, to study faces and 
styles and relate the two. When the individual style of 
hairdressing is changed according to the prevailing mode, 
styles in hats are usually more easily suited to the individual, 
as the season's hats are adapted to the style of hairdressing. 

The third rule is to select color that is related to the skin 
as well as the hair. White, for instance, is not becoming to a 
pale skin, but rather to a fresh, rosy complexion. Black has 
a tendency to make the complexion look white and should 
not be worn next to the face by those with dark, swarthy 
skin. Brown is most becoming to the person with auburn 
hair and good complexion, and gray to eyes and hair of that 
color. The study of contrasting colors, as suggested in the 
discussion of colors in dress, is one that should be adapted 
to the selection of color in headgear. A person with fair 
hair and skin must wear very different contrasting colors 
from the type of person with brown or auburn hair. The 
blending of colors in trimming is a study in itself and the 
suggestions given under dress and house decoration in relation 
to color apply also to hats. A study of color theory in 
the art classes will help one to make pleasing combina- 
tions in hat trimming. 

In the art classes it may be possible under your teacher's 
direction to sketch some hats. These should show the rela- 
tion of lines to faces. Begin as soon as possible to cultivate 
careful observation of hats that appear pleasing on people 
and the good and bad lines of hats in shops. Simple lines 
will be found the most satisfactory and in best taste. 

A fourth rule is to wear the hat properly. The prevailing 
styles do not suit all faces, but can be adapted, and hats 
should be well placed on the head and worn in correct posi- 
tion so that they conform to the outline of the hair. 

The making and covering of a buckram hat. — This is a 



MILLINERY 351 

very easy kind of hat to make. One yard of milliner's 
buckram is sufficient, one roll of hat wire, and a yard and a 
quarter of velvet 22'' wide, for the outside. The under 
brim can be faced with satin. 

I. To cut patterns for brim, top, crown, and side crown. 

A circle about 1" in diameter makes a good top crown. 
An eighth-inch square of paper folded four times can be cut 
into a good circle. After folding until cone-shaped, measure 
Z\" from the point of the cone on both sides and cut 
off edge in a curved line. Open, mark the outline of this 
pattern on the buckram, and cut out. No extra allowance 
is necessary. 

To make the brim pattern, cut in same way as described, 
a circle 18'' in diameter from a square 20". Fold the square 
in cone shape and measure 9" along sides of cone, before 
trimming in curved line. Measure also 4" from the point 
on both sides of the cone and cut a curved line for the inner 
circle or head size of the brim. This will give a large circle 
with hole in center for head. Fold this ring once, and 
notch at the center front and center back. Cut through 
back fold. From the center front notch, cut a slash to 
within i" of inside head circle. Slash the eight radii (which 
will make every other one) in the same way. Lap the 
edges slashed about |" and pin. This makes a curved sec- 
tion and pattern of a mushroom hat brim. Mark this outline 
of pattern on the buckram, allowing one inch on the inside 
around head size and one inch on one end for lapping. The 
one inch on the inside will form a bandeau when slashed 
(see Fig. 139). 

The side crown pattern is made from a strip of paper. 
As the head size and top of crown size differ, this straight 
strip must be slashed and lapped to 'fit. A strip 28" X 4|" 
is a good one to start with. Mark center of this strip for 



352 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



center front. Slash to within \" on opposite edge. At 
each side of this slash cut three more, with a distance of 
3i'' between the slashes. Lap the edges of the slashes about 
\" and pin. The lapped edge is now only 22^''. Mark out- 
line of pattern on the buckram with one inch allowance for 
lap at end (see Fig. 139). 




Fig. 139. — Lapping of slashed paper pattern for side crown. The method 
of lapping is the same for the brim. 

This pattern is not extreme and is typical of many pat- 
terns that can be cut for all styles and shapes of hats. The 
necessary measurements are : (1) diameter of hat, back to 
front, (2) size of head, (3) height of side crown, (4) diameter 
of tip, 

II. To copy a style one should take measurements from 
the inside. A tape measure is used. 

Brim : Outside edge. 

Width of brim, center front, sides and back, 
Headline, 
Crown : Diameter of tip, 

Size around tip. 

Depth of crown, 

Base of side crown, 
Note any unusual features. 

III. To wire the buckram hat. 

Top of crown. — Cut wire 24'' long. Lay wire on buck- 
ram even with edge, sew with buttonhole stitches about 
\" apart (see Fig. 140). A milliner's needle No. 4 and 



MILLINERY 



353 




Fig. 140. — Wiring of top crown. 
The method is the same for side 
crown and brim. 



No. 30 cotton or milliner's thread are necessary. Do not 

let wire slip ; it should lie even with edge but on the under 

side of the top of the crown. 

Lap the ends of wire 2" and sew 

securely. In opening the roll of 

wire, care must be taken not to 

tangle it. Cut the fastening 

wire and slip roll on the left 

arm and shake it until it has 

loosened into large rings and 

has lost its spring. This saves 

much trouble. 

Side of crown. — Wire base 

only, using same method as for 

top of crown. Sew the unwired or top edge of the side 

crown to the wired edge of the top crown (see Fig. 141). 

The wire should all 
lie on the inside and 
not show from the 
outside of the crown. 
Start at the center 
back, using the but- 
tonhole stitch. 
When finished, lap 
ends at back and 
hold down with 
catch-stitching (see 

Chap. XVII for description of the stitch). 

Wiring of brim. — Lap ends of brim one inch in back and 

hold down with catch-stitching. Cut a wire for outside 

edge of brim ?>" longer than the edge. Begin at back where 

brim is lapped. Sew as described with buttonhole stitch 

and lap wire 3'' at back. At the head size slash the one- 
2a 




Fig. 141. — Sewing the side crown to the top 
crown of the buckram crown. 



354 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



inch allowance, make the slashes one inch apart and one 
inch deep. Bend these slashes up and at the bottom of 
slashes or lower head size place a wire two inches longer 
than the head size. Sew with buttonhole stitches and lap 
ends at center back two inches. Cut another wire same 
length and sew it to the upper edges of the slashed head 
size, lapping ends in back. This makes a one-inch bandeau 
of the same size on both edges. 

This method of wiring buckram frames can be adapted to 
many shapes. 

IV. To cover the buckram hat. 

The upper side of brim. — Preparation of frame for cover- 
ing. Bind the edge of the brim with one-inch bias strip of 




Fic 142. - Covering buckram frame. 

thin crinoline. Sew with long running stitch. Place the 
velvet over the top of tne brim so that the bias lies from 
front to back. Make rough tit first. Pin around edge every 
two inches and smooth fullness towards che back from the 
front. Slash velvet at head size so it may drop over the 
bandeau. Stretch velvet from head size to edge of brim ; 
fit and pin smoothly. Cut velvet at center back. Fold 
under one edge J'' and pin (see Fig. 142). Fold in other 
edge y Sit center back, so that the edges exactly meet. Sew 



MILLINERY 355 

with tiny slip stitches. Cut velvet around edge of brim, 
allowing Y' to turn under. Catch-stitch this turned edge 
to the buckram carefully so stitches will not show through. 
Pin crown in position. Sew it with long stitches (running) 
to the brim. 

The crown. — When it is to be smooth finished, lay velvet 
over the crown ; cut so it is large enough to extend half an 
inch from the tip at the sides. Sew in place with long 
running stitches. 

The side crown, when smoothly covered, is finished with 
a true bias piece of velvet. For the dimensions of the hat 
described, a piece 29'' X 5 J'' will be long enough. Join the 
velvet along selvedges to make piece long enough. Turn 
under \" top and bottom of strip; place around crown and 
pin in place, stretching at the bottom edge at base of crown, 
but holding the upper edge so as not to stretch it. The 
piecing in the velvet can be placed where the trimming will 
fall. Pin the ends of the velvet, fold under \" at the end, and 
blind-stitch in straight seam. 

The crown can be covered with a full tam-o'-shanter if 
desired. This is made of a circle of velvet about 18'' in 
diameter. Gather at edge with two draw strings and pull 
in to fit the base of the crown. Pin in place ; sew flat and 
cover sewing with a true bias strip of velvet one inch in 
width turned at both edges. The fullness of crown can be 
tacked to suit the face. 

The underside of brifii. — The underside of brim can be 
faced with velvet, silk, or satin. If thin silk or satin is used, 
a layer of cotton sheet wadding should be cut to fit and 
laid on the under brim. Turn the hat with under brim up. 
Lay satin on brim with bias from front to back. Pin in 
place at front, first at edge, then at head size. Push the full- 
ness to back and to the inside of hat. Fit facing, pinning at 



356 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

outside edge and then at head. Fit and smooth until sur- 
face is without wrinkles. Trim at edge, leaving i''. Slip- 
stitch seam at center back as on top covering. The edge of 
the facing can be finished at center back. Pin a few inches 
and then sew, using a stitch which will be J" long under the 
wire, and a tiny stitch through the top. Sew on the satin 
side, so that the stitches do not show on the velvet. By 
making a groove with the needle under the wire as the 
sewing proceeds, the stitches will be concealed, as they are 
drawn beneath the wire and a cord effect only is seen at the 
edge. At the center back tie the ends and finish the sewing, 
lapping the wire one fourth of an inch. 

The satin at the head size is slashed until it fits and is 
sewed to the headband. 

This style of hat can be trimmed effectively with wings, 
feathers, or large satin bows. If the tam-o'-shanter crown 
is used, it can be trimmed effectively at the base with a 
band of fur or rich embroidery. The brim can be bent in 
various ways to suit individual faces. 

The lining of the hat. — Hats can be lined with taffeta, 
China, or Sicilian silk. The length should be V longer 
than the head size, and about 2'^ more in depth. Turn a 
hem and run at edge, making casing wide enough for a 
ribbon to slip through. The hat fining is put in after the 
hat is otherwise finished. Place the raw edge inside the 
base of the crown, begin at center back and sew, using two 
tiny stitches one over the other and placing them Y' apart. 
These are taken exactly on the headline. Finish at back 
by lapping so that the end of the outside when finished will 
be turned in. Sew up in seam or flat with running stitches. 
Draw up with ribbon. A small square or circle of the lining 
silk can be placed in the top of the crown to complete the 
finish and prevent straw or wire from catching the hair. 



MILLINERY 357 

Making and covering a wire frame. — Every girl should 
learn to make wire frames. The construction is not di^- 
cult, after a little practice. It is possible to buy wire frames 
inexpensively, but the styles are not usually the exclusive 
ones. If one knows how to construct a frame, it is very 
easy to remodel those one buys, or to plan any variety of 
shape with round or square crowns, rolling or round brims, 
such as one cannot purchase. The shape of the wire frame 
then will depend on the prevailing styles. Visit the milli- 
nery shops and study the fashion sheets for hats. The 
following description of how to make a wire frame is typical 
and can be adapted to the style. 

For the frame making, the following materials are neces- 
sary : — 

1 roll of frame wire, 1 spool of tie wire, 1 yard of thin 
crinoline, pincers, tape measure, pencil. 

In preparation, wind off some of the tie wire. Fifteen turns 
around three fingers will enable one to cut the lengths evenly 
and all at once. After winding, cut at both ends. There 
will be thirty pieces about two inches in length. Open the 
roll of wire carefully as discussed above. In measuring w^ire, 
always measure with the tape on the outside of the curve. 

I. Practice lapping and tying wires. Lap two pieces of 
frame wire, b" in length ; hold the two-inch piece of tie wire 
with the first finger and thumb of left hand against the 
frame wires (see Fig. 143). Twist the tie wire firmly 
twice around the frame wires with right hand, and twist 
the ends of this wire together around each other. Then 
twist the tie wire ends with the pincers and break close. 
Practice until you can do this tying firmly. Then practice 
crossing wires at right angles and tying those. 

II. To make a wire frame. The crown and brim are 
made separately. The following is a simple shape with 



358 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 



brim rolling at left side. This can be varied according to 
style and made with oval or square crown. It is typical of 
how to make a wire frame. Mushroom, 
sailor, turban, and other shapes can be 
made, using the same method, after accu- 
rate measurements have been decided upon. 
The brim. — Make the head wires first, 
22" of wire plus 2" for lapping. Mark 
the twenty-two-inch point. Make two 
circles, same size ; lap ends two inches 
and tie both ends. Divide head size into 
eight equal divisions. Mark wires of both 
circles with pencil. Measure carefully, 
beginning at center of lapping of wires, 
which is the back. The marks should be 
2\" apart. For the spokes of the brim cut 
Fig. 143. — Method eight wires 10" long. At each mark on 
of twisting the tie ^j^g ^g^d wires, a spoke wire is to be at- 

wire 

t ached by being wrapped about it. Two 
inches from the end of each spoke wire make a bend with 
the pincers. Take the spoke wire in the right hand and 
place bend inside of one 
of the head circles at 
center back at the place 
marked. Twist once 
around the circle wire 
very close and tight. 
This requires practice. 
One inch above this 
twist on the short end 
of the spoke wire place the second head size circle and twist 
the spoke about it (see Fig. 144). The center back spoke is 
now in place, attached to the two head circles. Follow the 




Fig. 144. — Detail of method of twisting 
spokes about head wires. 



MILLINERY 



359 



markings carefully and attach the center front spoke by same 
method. Then the center left side and the center right, 
working with opposites until all spokes are in position (see 
Fig. 145). Straighten out spokes and roll up the ends at 
one side as if for brim, keeping the line of the various radii 




Fig. 145. — Spokes of a brim in place. 

straight from the center. The edge wires and brace wires 
for the brim come next. As the hat rolls at one side, the 
spokes will be longer on that side. It is necessary to measure 
the length of each spoke from the lower head size wire. 
Back 44'', left side back 6", left side 7", left side front 6", 
front 4|'', right side front, side and side back at right all 
4|''. Bend upward with pincers at marked places. The 
edge wire is to be placed at the bent places, in spokes. Cut 
52'' piece of wire, which will allow 4" for lap at back. Mark 
the distance on the edge wire to the left between spokes. 
From the middle of the four-inch lap to the left, mark 5J", 
12, 18, 25, 31, 36i, 42, 48, which is the middle of the back. 
Place edge wire in position and twist each spoke about it at 



360 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

the marked point on the edge wire. Lap the ends and tie 
twice at center back. The brace wires are placed next and 
keep the spokes in position. They are circles cut according 
to dimensions, lapped and tied and placed flat on the under- 
side of the brim and tied to each spoke with tie wire. Cut 
the brace wires 45'', 37'', 33", and 27" long. Two inches 
are allowed on each for lapping. The largest circle is placed 
one inch from the edge wire on the right side and IJ" from 
it on the left, and the other three divide the space evenly 
about one inch apart. 

The crown. — If this is to be dome-shaped, make the 
base wire 32" plus 2" for lapping. Tie in circle. Divide 
this circle into eight parts, 4" between each mark. 
Cut four crown spokes each 20" long. Bend with pin- 
cers one inch at each end of the spokes. Place bend in- 
side of base wire at point 
marked and turn the one inch 
of the crown spokes around 
the base wire at the eight 
places marked. Place these 
by opposites (see Fig. 146). 
Shape the dome as desired and 
tie the four spokes at center 
with one tie wire. Five brace 

Fig. 146 -Two of the crown wires ^ires are enough for the crown, 
placed for crown by opposites. These are placed about Ij" 

Two more to be added. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ 

the braces were tied to the brim. Measure for the brace 
wires by holding wire around the dome-shaped crown and 
allowing 2" for lap on each wire. This completes the 
crown of the hat. A square crown is easily made by same 
method with the measurements of the diameter of the tip 
and depth of crown (sec Fig. 147). 




MILLINERY 



361 



Wire hats can be covered with crinoline or cape net, and 
tlie final covering can be of velvet, cloth, or straw. 

III. To cover with thin crinoline. This must be of a 
light quality to fit into all the curves. Do not pull too tightly 
and bend the frame. Hold under- 
side of brim up and lay crinoline 
over it. Pin over the edge wire 
and lower head size wire, working 
from front to back, first on one side 
and then on the other. Cut full- 
ness away at center back, lap over 
one inch, and pin over back spoke. 
This is the first fitting; go over it 
again' to remove wrinkles, but guard against making it too 
tight. Slash at head size space at each spoke and halfway 
between. Turn up the slashed ends and pin to head size 
wires (see Fig. 148). Sew with even running stitches first 




Fig. 147. — Square edged 
crown showing crossing of 
wires. 



LJl 




Pig. 148. — Covering brim of wire frame with crinoline. 



362 



SHELTER AND CLOTHING 




around upper head size wire, then around edge wire ; place 
stitches just inside the wire. Trim off extra crinohne, leaving 
only half inch at edge wire where turned. 

The crown can be covered by laying a piece of crinoline 
over the top of the crown, smoothing it over the spokes, 
and pinning fullness in little plaits at the base where it is 

turned under base wire 
(see Fig. 149). Sew 
around with running 
stitches and trim off on 
the inside. 

IV. To sew straw for 
covering wire frame. 
Bind the edge of the 
brim with straw, using 
the running stitch. If 
the straw is too thick 
and this makes a clumsy 
edge, bind it with a one-inch bias strip of velvet, satin, or 
silk ; use running stitch. 

In sewing straw use No. 40 or No. 50 cotton thread of 
same color as straw. Silk should not be used, since it cuts 
the straw. Begin with the top of the brim a little to one 
side of center back. Sew the straw so that one edge is even 
with the brim. The stitches should be small and concealed 
under a weaver of the straw on the upper side and about 
half an inch long on the underside of brim. Do not draw 
the thread too tight, for every impression shows. Sew only 
on the outside edge. Lap the second row over the first as 
little as possible. The braid is continuous for the brim. 
Sew the second row so that it also holds the inner edge of 
the first row of straw with the one sewing. Ths inside edge 
of each row must be held in slightly to fit and lie flat. Carry 



Fig. 



149.- 
line. 



Covering crown with crino- 
Notice plaits at base. 



MILLINERY 363 

the straw round and round the frame. Care must be taken 
in passing from one row to another to have the transition 
gradual, and in rounding to make a good curve. If one side 
of the brim is wider and rolls, continue with the straw until 
the narrow side of the brim is covered. Then fill in the re- 
mainder of the wide side, which is uncovered, with sections 
of the circle, cutting each section separately. The under 
brim is covered the same way. 

To sew straw for the crown, one can begin at the base or 
tip of crown. To begin at center of tip, bend straw to 
form a good circle in center, sew as for a flat mat with the. 
same stitch as for brim. Occasionally lay the sewed straw 
over the frame to fit. Continue to the base. This is ac- 
complished more easily if the braid is pinned four or five 
inches ahead before sewed. A tam-o'-shanter crown of 
straw is started at the center and sewed round and round 
in a mat or plateau until it is about lO'' in diameter, accord- 
ing to size desired. Draw in gradually in sewing until it is 
crown-shaped. 

Another way to sew braid for the crown is to begin at 
the base and sew around so that the first row is even with 
the base. The second row is overlapped and a gradual 
transition made to the top. Finish the top neatly. A hole 
can be made through the crinoline at the center of tip and 
the ends brought through. They should be sewed flat on 
the inside. 

In straw sewing, much depends on the uniformity of the 
lapping. A hat which has uneven rows is not well made. 
This uniformity of width can with care be preserved by 
thinking about it as each row is turned. 

Bow making can be practiced in paper or cheap cambric 
muslin, if no old ribbon is available. There are a few simple 
bows which are very useful, which every girl should know how 



364 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

to make. With practice it is possible to get artistic effects 
and to make many variations of these. Cut the mushn 
about three inches wide. Always tie a bow when possible, 
for a tied bow is much more graceful than a sewed one. 

The simple cravat how is really familiar to all. Plait the 
ribbon a distance from the end to allow for a streamer or 
bow end. Hold the plaits with the thumb and first finger 
of the right hand ; with the left hand measure the length 
of the first loop ; plait, and hold all plaits with thumb and 
first finger of left hand. Measure and plait the second loop 
in the same manner. Tie a knot over the plaits by twisting 
the second end of ribbon around them, drawing it through 

this twist or loop you have 
just made, from the direction 
it was taking when it formed 
the last loop. If you put this 
end through the twist from 
the opposite direction, no knot 
^. , , will be made and your bow will 

Fig. 150. — Simple cravat bow. ■• ,i 

tumble. If you can tie the 
cravat bow, you can tie every bow that is made. The pro- 
cess is the same, but the difference lies in the number and 
relative lengths of loops and ends (see Fig. 150). 

For the uneven how, measure a long loop, plait, and hold 
with right hand. Opposite this, measure, plait, and hold a 
much shorter loop. Parallel with the first loop measure, 
plait, and hold a loop a little shorter than the first one. 
Opposite, measure another loop a little shorter than loop No. 
2. Parallel with loop No. 1 make a fifth loop. Continue until 
you have as full a bow as you wish. Usually five loops are 
enough, three on one side of the knot, and two on the other. 
Tie the knot over the plaits you are holding with thumb 
and finger of the right hand as you did for the cravat bow. 




MILLINERY 



365 



Remember to bring the end of the ribbon through the twist 
from the same direction in which it was when the last loop 
was made (see Fig. 151). 

Rosettes. — Make a rosette bow as 
you did the uneven bow, but measure 

all loops so they 

are of even lengths. 

Have the same 

number of loops on 

each side of the 

knot. Ten or 

twelve loops will 

make a good-look- 
ing rosette bow 

(see Fig. 152). 

The rounding rosette is made in the 

same way as the rosette bow. Draw the knot very tight 

and pull the loops over it so as to conceal the knot and make 

the bow the shape of a pom-pom or half sphere (see Fig. 153). 




Fig. 152. —The ro 
sette of even loops. 




Fig. 



151. — The 
bow. 



uneven 





Fig. 153. — The round 
rosette. 



Fig. 154.— The flat 
rosette. 



For the flat rosette, make loops as for rosette bow, but do 
not draw the knot very tight. Arrange loops around it flat 
so as to have a wheel effect (see Fig. 154). 



366 SHELTER AND CLOTHING 

A FEW SUGGESTIONS FOR TRIMMING 

1. See the current fashion magazines. 

2. SimpHcity in trimming is always most pleasing. A 
hat is spoiled if overt rimmed. 

3. After the trimming is pinned in place, hold hat at a 
distance and criticize. Notice what may be taken off. 

4. After placing the trimming, sit or stand before the 
mirror and adjust trimming to suit the face and outline of 
the hair. 

5. For young girls, trimming across the front or back 
may be becoming. It is usually placed at the left side, 
although sometimes on the right. 

6. A simple trimming is made by rolling a twist of ribbon 
around the crown and finishing with a bunch of flowers. 

7. Wreaths or ribbon flowers can be made in class. Scraps 
of silk or ribbon can be used for this purpose. 

8. Wings and quills are suitable for young girls. A quill 
is often trimming enough for a stiff tailored hat and can be 
put through the crown and brim if turned. Wings must be 
carefully placed in relation to lines of face to get the best 
effect, and should be pinned in position and tried. 

9. Straw hats, if of tailored finish, can be trimmed with 
straw bows, wings, or ornaments. This makes an economi- 
cal trimming and uses up the odd pieces of straw. 

10. Ribbon bows are always suitable for young girls' 
hats. Every girl should be able to tie the simpler styles. 
(See directions.) 

11. The ability to trim a hat artistically is a gift. One 
may possess it and not be aware. Begin to practice placing. 
Study the best designs in shop windows and magazines. 
Notice the colors and materials combined. 

12. Sew trimmings with as few stitches as possible to 



MILLINERY 367 

hold, — wings, feathers, and flowers securely at the base 
but tacked loosely with invisible stitches. 

13. Large black-headed pins are useful in placing trimming 
and in holding until sewed. 

EXERCISES 

1. What knowledge should guide one in selecting a hat? What 
proportion of the expenditure for clothing should be spent on hats ? 

2. Make and trim buckram hat for some one at home. Perhaps 
you have some old silk which will do for the facing of the brim. 
Try to keep the cost as low as possible. 

3. Bring in three bows made at home, of old ribbon, or cambric. 

4. Describe method of covering a wire frame with crinoline. 

5. Describe the principal stitches used in millinery. 

6. Practice tying wires in preparation for frame making. 



INDEX 



Adulteration of materials, 194-196. 

by combination of fibers, 195. 

by methods of finishir.g, 195. 

by use of waste materials, 195. 

by weighting, 194. 
Esthetic education in the home, 8-9. 
Aprons, construction of, 246. 
Architecture, 

colonial, 20. 

domestic, 18-26. 

English, 19-20. 

Italian, 20. 

principles of, 18-29. 

Spanish, 20. 

Bathroom, 31, 52-53, 88. 

fixtures, 88. 

furnishing, 88. 

location, 31. 
Bedroom, 86. 
Bleaching of 

cotton thread, 113. 

cotton yarn, 113. 

linen, 139, 142. 
Bric-a-brac, 84, 86. 

how to choose, 86. 

use of, 86. 
Budgets for clothing, 

wardrobe costing $65 per year, 
314-316. 

wardrobe costing $125 per year, 
316-318. 
Building, cost of, 36. 



Candles for lighting, 43. 
Carding, 

cotton, 106-107. 

wool, 158. 
Care of clothing, 319-330. 

before laundering, 321. 

during off seasons, 321. 

pressing, 320. 

2b 369 



removal of stains, 324-327. 

renovating and cleaning, 321-322. 

shoes, 320. 

suggestions for daily use, 319-321. 
Carpet manufacture, 161. 
Cellar, 32. 

how to construct, 32. 

importance of, 32. 
Cesspools, 49. 
Chemical composition of 

cotton, 189. 

flax, 132, 190. 

silk, 190. 

wool, 188. 
Chemise, 237-238. 

construction of, 250. 

pattern from shirt waist draft, 237. 
Cisterns, 46. 

Cleanliness in the home, 4. 
Closets, 31. 
Clothing, 

budgets, 314-318. 

care and repair of, 319-330. 

hygiene of, 305-307. 
corsets, 305-306. 
hats 305. 

. rubbers, 305. 
shoes, 304-305. 
underwear, 307-310. 

purposes of, 311-312. 

remodeling of, 327-328. 
Coal stoves, 38-39. 
Cocoons, 172-175. 

color of, 172, 174. 

reeling of, 174, 175. 
Colonial architecture, 20. 
Color in decoration, 59-60. 

contrasting, 59. 

complementary, 59. 

gradation of, 59. 

values, 59. 
Conductivity of materials, 191-183. 



370 



INDEX 



Consumers' League label, 202. 

conditions of labor, 202-203. 
Corset cover, 

construction of, 253-255. 

pattern of, from shirt waist, 238. 
Corsets, hygiene of, 305-307. 
Cost of building, 36. 
Costume, 

design in, 275, 276. 

Egyptian, 274. 

French, 279-286. 

Greek, 276-278. 

history of, 274. 

Roman, 278. 

The Renaissance in 
16th century, 280. 
17th century, 281. 
18th century, 282. 
19th century, 283-286. 
Costume design, 288. 

requirements of, 289. 

adaptation to individual of, 297. 

color and color harmony in, 294. 

dark and light "value," 292. 

lines in design, 292. 

the silhouette (lines), 290. 

unity, 289. 
Cotton, 97-129. 

appearance, 98. 

baling, 105. 

by-products, 106. 

composition of, 189. 

culture of in United States, 102. 

ginning, 103-105. 

varieties, 98-102. 

where grown, 98. 
Cotton cloth manufacture, 113-121. 

dyeing, 121. 

finishing in, 120. 

industry in the United States, 128. 

mercerization, 121. 

pattern making for, 115, 116, 118. 

printing of, 121. 

warping, 117. 

weaving, 121. 
Cotton industry in the United States, 

128. 
Cotton materials, 122-127. 
Cotton yarn manufacture, 106-110. 



bale breaker, 106. 
carding, 106. 
combing, 107. 

doubling and drawing, 108. 
picker machine, 106. 
spinning, 110. 
uses of yarn, 112. 
Curtains and draperies, 82-84. 
how to hang, 83. 
materials used for, 82. 
reasons for use, 83. 

Darning, 329. 

Decoration of underwear, 210-215. 

bias bands as, 215. 

fancy stitches as, 213-215. 

tucking on, 213, 

use of entre deux, 211. 

use of lace, 211. 

whipped ruffles on, 212. 
Decoration, principles of home, 57- 
60. 

appropriateness, 57. 

color, 59. 

effect of environment, 56. 

good "lines" 58. 

simplicity, 57. 

unity, 57. 
Design in costume, 288-289. 

adaptation to individual of, 297. 

color and color harmony in, 294. 

dark and light "value," 292-294. 

lines in design, 290. 

requirements of, 289. 

the silhouette (lines), 290. 

unity, 289. 
Disposal of waste, 48-53. 
Doilies, crocheted edges, 272. 
Domestic Architecture, 18-26. 
Doorways, 22, 30. 

architectural effect, 22. 

for exit, 30. 

for ventilation, 30. 
Drafting of patterns, 219-243. 

chemise from shirt waist, 237-238. 

corset cover from shirt waist, 238. 

night dress from shirt waist, 234- 
237. 

peplum from shirt waist, 238-239. 



INDEX 



371 



Drafting of patterns, 

of drawers, 228-230. 

of kimono nightdress, 226-228. 

of shirt waist, 220-223. 

of shirt waist sleeve, 234. 

skirts, 239-242. 
four gored, 242. 
five gored, 242. 
six gored, 240-241. 

tools for, 226. 
Drainage systems, 49-53. 
Drawers, 249-250. 

construction of, 249-251. 

pattern of, 228-230. 
Dress, 

adaptation of, 311. 

appropriateness, 300. 

color in, 294-296. 

design of costume, 288. 

economics of, 311-318. 

fashion in, 299. 

hygiene of, 303-310. 

importance of the study of modern, 
288. 

jewelry, 301-302. 

requirements of, 289. 

simplicity in, 299. 
Dresses, construction of, 322-347. 

gymnasium suit, 337. 

middy blouse, 333. 

Norfolk jacket waist, 342. 

one piece dress, 334-336, 342-346. 

shirt waist, lingerie, 334. 

tailored shirt waist, 338-342. 

tailored skirt, 336. 
Dressing sacque, construction of, 253. 
Dyeing, 160. 

cotton thread, 113. 

cotton yarn, 113. 

Economics of dress, 311-318. 
allowance, 312. 
budgets, 313-318. 
darning, 329. 
patching, 328. 

ready vs. home made dress, 313. 
remodeling, 327. 

wardrobe costing $65 per year, 
314-316. 



wardrobe costing $125 per year, 
316-318. 
Education in the home, 6-8. 

intellectual and aesthetic, 8. 

physical, 6-7. 

religious, 8. 
Egyptian costume, 274-276. 
Electricity for lighting, 44. 
Embroideries, 257-260. 

Chinese, 259. 

Indian, 259. 

Persian, 259. 

Turkish, 259. 
Embroidery, 257. 

application of, 266-273. 

equipment for, 266. 

history of, 257-260. 
Embroidery stitches, 260-266. 

how to make them, 260-266. 

blanket, 260. 
scalloping, 261. 

chain, 260. 

couching and applique, 264, 266. 

cross, 262. 

featherstitching, 214, 261. 

French knots, 262. 

hem, 264. 

herringbone or catch, 263. 

lazy daisy, 262. 

outline, 262. 

satin, 263. 
English architecture, 19. 
Entertainment in the home, 12-13. 
Entre deux in undergarments, 211. 

between rolled. edges, 211. 

use in seams, 211. 
Ethics of purchase of underwear, 202. 

conditions of labor, 202. 

Fashion, 299-302. 

selection of, 299. 

simplicity, 299. . 

study of history of, 274. 
Featherstitching, 214, 216-262. 
Fibers, principal vegetable, 

coir, 147. 

cotton, 97-129. 

flax, 131-147. 

hemp, 146. 



372 



INDEX 



Fibers, principal vegetable, 

jute, 146. 

pina, 147. 

ramie, 146. 
Filters, water, 47. 
Filtration plants, 47. 
Fire-escapes, 32. 
Fireplaces, 37-38. 
Fixtures, bathroom, 88. 
Flax, 131-147. 

antiquity of, 133. 

appearance of, 132, 190. 

botany of, 131. 

breaking of, 133. 

by-products, 133. 

composition of, 190. 

culture of, 132. 

retting of, 132. 

rippling of, 132. 

scutching, 133. 

varieties of, 131. 

where grown, 131. 
Floors, 67-69. 

structure of, 34. 

wood, hardwood, 67-68. 
Floor covering, 67-72. 

carpet, 70. 

hnoleum, 69. 

rugs, 71-72. 
oriental, 72. 
rag, 72. 
Franklin stove, 38. 
French costume, 279-286. 
Furnace, hot air, 40. 
Furnishing of the home, 

bathroom, 88. 

bedroom, 86-88. 

dining room, 88-90. 

functions of, 55. 

haUs, 94. 

kitchen, 95. 

hving room, 90-92. 

reception room, 92-93. 
Furniture, 72-83. 

"cottage" 77. 

English furniture makers, 75-76. 

how to choose, 73-75. 

mission, 77. 

willow, 79. 



Gas, lights 43. 

stoves, 40. 
Greek and Roman costume, 276-279. 
Gymnasium suit, 

constuction of bloomers, 337. 

construction of waist, 337. 

Hair, 305. 

arrangement of, 349. 

bows on, 349. 

hats in relation to, 305. 

hygiene, 305. 
Hallways, 31. 

Harmony in the home, 4, 5. 
Hats, 

bow making, 363-365. 

buckram frame, 350-356. 
covering of, 350-356. 
making of, 350-354. 

hygiene of, 305. 

lining of, 356. 

suggestions for trimming, 366. 

wire frames, 357-362. 
covering of, 361. 
making of, 337-361. 
straw sewing, 362. 
Heating the house, 37-41. 

fireplaces, 37-38. 

furnace, hot air, 40. 

hot water, 40-41. 

steam, 40-41. 
History 

of embroidery, suggestions for 
study, 257-260. 

of costume, 274-286. 
Home, the, 

atmosphere of, 1, 2. 

decoration of, 55. 

education in the, 5, 9. 

entertainment in, 2, 3. 

furnishing of, 12. 

influence of, 2, 5. • 

mistress of, 9-11. 

sanitation in, 4-5. 
Home decoration, principles of, 55- 

60. 
Home furnishing, functions of, 55. 

aesthetic, 55. 

economic, 56. 



INDEX 



373 



Homemaker, the ideal, 11-12. 
Homemaking, the aim of, 4-5. 
Honesty in home ideals, 3. 
Hot water heating, 40. 
House, the, 15-29. 

additions to, 22. 

apartment and block, 17. 

architecture of, 18-25. 

color of, 25. 

exposure of, 26. 

inner finish, 34. 

materials for, 21, 33. 

plans of, 30-32. 

requirements in, 15-17. 

single, the, 18. 

structure of, 32-35. 

surroundings, 17. 
Hygiene of clothing, 303-310. 

corsets, 305. 

hats, 305. 

rubbers, 305. 

shoes, 304. 

underwear, 307-310. 
Hygroscopic power of material, 191- 
193. 

Ice supply, 48. 

Ideals for homemaking, 3-5. 

cleanliness, 4. 

godliness, 4. 

harmony, 4. 

honesty, 3. 

orderliness, 4. 

right living, 3. 

simplicity, 3. 

unity, 1, 4. 
Italian architecture, 20. 

Jacquard weaving, 118-120. 

Kitchen, 31. 

convenience to dining room, 31, 
ventilation of, 31. 

Lace, 208, 211, 323. 

for underwear, as decoration, 

211. 
mitering of, 214. 
renovation of, 323. 



Laundry bags, construction of, 246. 
Linen cloth manufacture, 137-143. 

finishing in, 139-142. 
beetling, 142. 
calendering, 142. 
rub boards, 142. 

pattern making in, 138, 140, 141. 

use of Jacquard loom, 139, 140. 

warping, 138. 

weaving, 137. 
Linen industry in United States, 

144. 
Linen materials, 145. 
Linen yarn manufacture, 133—137. 

hackling, 135. 

roughing in, 135. 

spinning : 
wet, 137. 
dry, 137. 

spreading, 136. 

use of flax wheel in, 134. 

uses of yarn, 134, 143. 
Lighting the bouse, 42-44. 

candles, 43. 

electricity, 44. 

gas, 43. 

lamps, 43. 
Living room, the, 90-92. 
Loom, the, 114-116. 

hand, 114-115. 

harnessing of, 116, 118. 
heddles, 116. 

inventors of, 116. 

Jacquard, 118. 

parts of colonial, 115. 

power, 116. 

primitive, 114. 

spooling for, 117. 

warping for, 117. 

Manufacture of 

cotton cloth, 113-121. 
cotton thread, 112-113. 
cotton yarn, 106-110. 
hnen cloth, 137-143. 
linen thread, 143-144. 
linen yarn, 133-137. 
woolen and worsted cloth, 159- 
164. 



374 



INDEX 



Maniifacture of 

woolen and worsted yarn, 151- 
159. 
Materials, adulteration of, 194-196. 

conductivity of, 191-193. 

hygroscopic power of, 191-193. 

tensile strength of, 191-193. 
Materials, 

common cotton, 122-127. 

common linen, 145. 

common silk, 183-185. 

common woolen, 165-168. 
Mercerization of cotton cloth, 121. 
Microscopical appearance of 

cotton, 98, 189. 

flax, 132, 190. 

sUk, 172, 190. 

wool, 148, 188. 
Middy blouse, 333-334. 
Millinery, 348-367. 

bow making, 363-365. 

making of hats, 350-363. 

selection of hats, 348-350. 

suggestions for trimming, 366-367. 
Mistress of the home, 9. 

common sense, 11. 

foresight, 10. 

health of, 10. 

self-control, 10. 

sympathy of, 10. 

tact of, 10. 

training of, 10. 
Moth, silk, 171-172. 

Bombyx mori, 171-172. 

wild, 171-172. 

Nightdress, 255-256. 

construction of, 248-249. 
pattern of kimono, 226-228. 
with sleeves, 237. 

Oil stoves, 40. 

Order in the home, 4, 5. 

Patching, 328, 329. 
Patterns, 217-243. 

chemise from shirt waist, 237. 

corset cover from shirt waist, 238. 

drafting of, 226. 



drawers, 228. 

interpreting, 219. 

kimono nightdress, 226. 

measurements for, 217. 

nightdress from shirt waist, 234. 

peplum, 238. 

selection of commercial, 218. 

shirt waist, 230. 

testing and altering, 220. 
Petticoat, 

construction of, 251. 

pattern of, 239. 

sateen or silk, 239. 
Physical education in the home, 6, 
7. 

cleanliness, 7. 

exercise, 6. 

food, 6. 

fresh air, 6, 7. 

water, 6. 

work, 7. 
Pictures and picture moldings, 84, 
85. 

framing of, 85. 

hanging of, 85. 

selection of, 84, 85. 
Pillow cases, making of, 245. 
Plumbing, 50, 53. 
Porch cushions, 268. 
Problems in sewing, 245-256. 

hand and machine made, 248- 
253. 

machine made, 245-247. 

Ramie, uses of, 197. 
Reception room, the, 92, 93. 
Religious education in the home, 
8. 

character building, 8. 

reverence, 8. 
Remodeling, 327. 
Rental, 35. 
Repair of clothing, 327-330. 

darning, 329. 

dyeing and tinting, 322. 

mending, 327. 

patching, 328. 

remodeling, 327. 

renovating and cleaning, 321. 



INDEX 



375 



Richards, Ellen H. (Frontispiece). 

mottoes for right living, 13. 
Roof, the, 19, 22, 34, 35. 

architectural importance of, 19-22. 

gambrel, 21. 

hip, 19-21. 

lean-to, 21. 

materials for, 34, 35. 
Rooms, 

arrangement of, 30. 

convenience of exit, 30. 

economy of space, 30, 31. 

wall space in, 31. 

Sewage disposal, 48-53. 
city and town, 49-50. 

farm, 48, 49. 
Sewerage system, 51. 
Sewing, 200-215. 

hand vs. machine, 200, 201, 203. 
Sewing machine, 204-208. 

care in use of, 207. 

kinds of, 204. 

practice on, 206. 

study of parts before practice, 205. 
Sheep, 148-151. 

shearing, 151. 

raising, 148. 
Shirt waist, 333-336. 

construction of lingerie, 334. 

construction of tailored, 338-342. 

pattern of, 220-238. 
Shoddy, use of, 164. 
Shoes, 

care of, 320. 

hygiene of, 304-305. 
Silk, 171-190. 

antiquity of, 172. 

appearance of, 172. 

artificial, 186. 

composition of, 190, 

cost of, 175. 

culture of, 172. 

raw, 175. 

reeled, 174. 

source of, 171. 

varieties of, 171. 

waste, 179. 

where grown, 171* 



Silk cloth manufacture, 178-179. 

adulteration in, 180. 

dyeing, 178-180, 182. 

finishing, 182. 

pattern making in, 182. 

use of Jacquard loom in, .178, 181. 

warping, 178. 

weaving; 182. 

weighting, 180, 182. 
Silk industry in the United States, 

186, 187. 
Silk materials, 183-185. 
Silk moth, 172. 

Bombyx mori, 171, 172. 

wild, 171, 172. 
Silk ribbon, manufacture of, 179. 
Silk worms, 172. 

classification of, 171. 

culture of, 172, 174. 
Silk yarn manufacture, 175. 

dyeing, 179. 

opening of hanks, 175. 

throwing, 175. 

use of organzine, 176. 

use of tram, 176. 

uses of, 176. 

winding, 176. 
Simplicity of living, 3, 4. 
Skirt patterns, 239-242. 

five gored, 242. 

four gored, 242. 

foundation, 239, 240. 

six gored, 240, 241. 
Skirts, 

construction of tailored, 336, 
337. 

patterns of, 239, 242. 
Spanish architecture, 20. 
Spinning, 110, 113. 

distaff, 110. 

flax wheel, 110. 

great wheel, 110. 

inventors of machinery for. 111. 

mule spinning machine, 111. 

of flax, 135, 137. 

ring spinning machine, 112. 

spindle, 110. 
Stains on clothing, removal of, 324. 
Stairs, 31. 



376 



INDEX 



Steam heating, 40, 41. 

Stocking bags, construction of, 246. 

Stoves, 38-40. 

coal, 38. 

Franklin, 38. 

gas, 40. 

oil, 40. 

wood, 39. 
Structure of house, 32-35. 

cellar, 32. 

roof, 34. 

walls, 34. 

floors, 34. 

Table runner, 270. 
Tests for fibers, 196-199. 

burning, 198. 

chemical, 196, 197. 

microscopical, 198. 

washing, 198, 199. 
TextUes, 97-199. ' 

comparison of fibers, 188. 

reason for study of, 188. 
Thread manufacture, 112, 113. 

bleaching, 113. 

cotton, 112. 

dyeing, 113. 

hnen, 143. 

reeling, 113. 

silk, 176. 

twisting, 113. 
Towels, 268-269. 

guest, 269. 

initial on, 269. 
Trap, the S, 50-51. 
Traveling cases, construction of, 246. 
Tucking, 213. 

Undergarments, 200-215. 

conditions under which made, 202. 

construction of, 244. 

cutting out of, 244. 

fitting of, 245. 

flat trimmed, 210, 

hand vs. machine made, 201. 

hygiene of, 307. 

materials of which made, 208. 

trimming for, 210. 

use of entre deux on, 211. 



Underwear, 200. 

hygiene of, 307-309. 
Unity in the Home, 1-4. 

Ventilation, 37, 41, 42. 
Ventilating systems, 41. 

Walls of house, 34. 

materials used, 34. 

space for furniture, 31. 

structure of, 34. 
Wall papers, 64-67. 

borders and friezes, 66. 

ceiling papers, 67. 

figured, 64-66. 

plain, 64. 

striped, 66. 
Walls, the covering of, 60-67. 

burlap, 60. 

exposure of, according to, 62. 

location of room, according to' 
61. 

paint, 60. 

paper, 60. 

sanitation, 60. 

shape of room, according to, 62. 

size of room, according to, 62. 

use of room, according to, 62. 
Water, 45-48. 

contamination of, 45, 46. 

purification of, 45-46. 

sources of, 45. 
Water closet, 53. 
Water filters, 47. 
Weaving, 113-120. 

pattern in variations of, 116—118. 

primitive, 114, 115. 

process of 

battening, 115. 
picking, 115. 
shedding, 115. 

use of shuttle in, 115, 116. 
Wells, 46. 

Whipping of ruffles, 212. 
Windows, 22-30. 

architectural effect, 22. 

care in placing, 30. 

for ventilation, 30, 
Wood stoves, 39. 



INDEX 



377 



Woodwork, the, 69-70. 
Wool, 

appearance of, 148, 188. 
composition of, 188. 
culture of, 151. 
source of, 149. 
varieties of, 150, 151, 
where grown, 148. 
yolk in, 151, 152. 
Woolen and worsted cloth manu- 
facture, 159. 
finishing, 

burling, 162. 
dyeing, 160. 
fuUing, 162. 
mending, 162. 
shearing, 163. 
harnessing, 160. 
pattern in, 160. 



warping, 159. 

weaving, 160. 
Woolen and worsted yarn manu- 
facture, 

carbonization in, 154. 

carding, 158. 

combing, 158. 

difference between, 156, 158, 159. 

drying, 153, 154. 

gilling, 158. 

sorting, 151. 

spinning, 158, 159. 

substitutes in, 155, 156. 

tops, preparation of, 158. 

uses of, 158, 163, 164. 

washing, 152, 154. 
Wool industry in the United States, 

169. 
I Wool materials, 165-168. 



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